The report examines the impacts of herbivores in the Monadhliath SAC in light of a Scottish Natural Heritage report that concluded deer management at higher altitudes must change to prevent further blanket bog deterioration. Deer and sheep occupancy in the site were measured using faecal pellet group counts. Habitat condition data from the blanket bog was also collected to understand the ecological variables. The aim of the project was to investigate the spatial and temporal relationship between deer occupancy and habitat condition. The results are discussed. Overall it was seen that the significance of the impact of deer on the bog habitat was also dependent on the altitude. Higher altitudes experienced greater influences from weathering processes (deer therefore not having an 'additive' impact) whereas lower altitudes deer were more likely to be the greater impact.

More longitudinal data is needed on the previous dynamics of the blanket bog and the deer populations that were using it to gain a broader understanding and reduce uncertainty in the conclusions drawn on the extent of deer impact. Future dynamics are also an unknown. There is a general lack of research on high-altitude eroding peatlands and specifically on the interactions between deer and blanket bogs.

The paper provides a review of the history and status of red deer at the time of writing. This comprehensive discussion examined the relationship and history of the relationship between red deer and their habitat. There is detail provided on management up to World War I and since World War I as well as information on the red deer survey. The red deer survey examined and recorded information about all the areas that were inhabited in Scotland by red deer. It was carried out in 1952 in light of the growing problems related to the management of red deer. The discussion ends with a consideration of the (at time) present status and future conservation of red deer.

The study examined the genetic composition of sika deer populations in the New Forest (Hampshire) and Purbeck region (Dorset). In comparison to the work done in relation to the hybridization of sika deer with red deer in Scotland, there has been little work into the more sporadic distributions of sika deer populations in England. The study aimed to evaluate 1) signs of recent interbreeding between red and sika deer in the New Forest, 2) how genetically distinct sika deer were between the New Forest and Purbeck region and 3) evidence of hybridisation within the populations. Results identified that the sika and red deer were genetically distinct in the New Forest. Overall the New Forest deer appeared to be more genetically pure bred than the Purbeck deer.

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The paper provides a commentary on the “Wild Deer Best Practice Event” hosted at Drumlanrig Castle, Dumfries and Galloway, 27-28 October 2010, conducted by Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH). The seminar included discussion on, 1) planning and habitat assessment, 2) deer behavior, 3) welfare and responsibility, 4) carcass hygiene, 5) effective syndicate and 6) rifle shooting. The paper provides an outline of deer management and an educational programme for hunters in Scotland. (N.B. paper is in Japanese)

This review paper draws on scientific studies that examine the impacts of mammals on trees and forest crops. The paper identifies the likely impacts on trees in relation to the severity of browsing damage as well as other ecological variables including, tree species, age and season. There are studies that suggest some compensatory growth can occur after browsing but further work is needed in this. The success of tree regeneration is dependent on herbivore and seedling density. Browsing is also likely to impact on the composition of the forest habitat, including ground cover with a decrease in shrub and herbaceous plants and an increase in grasses, fern and mosses.

The authors identify the need for longer-term data that links the incidence of browsing damage to loss in yield. Likewise, further work into the effect of browsing on the likelihood of recovery could also be explored, in particular for trees growing in UK conditions.

This study examined the relations and population differences between roe, red and fallow deer in relation to the different stages of a forest. The study utilised game killed records, observation and faecal pellet grouping from Drummond Hill Forest, Scotland. Roe deer were more numerous in younger forest habitat, red deer at a later stage of development and fallow deer being most numerous in older forests. The results identified that the stage of growth of a forest habitat is a more important factor to determine the relative abundance of a deer species than inter-specific competition.

The study surveyed the current profile structure of the upland birchwoods in Ben Hope SSSI. The aim of the survey was to help assess and examine the extent of herbivore and other impacts on the woodland. Existing management plans were also reviewed. Previous reports have concluded that the birchwoods were in an unfavourable condition due to overbrowsing by deer and sheep. Key life stages (including saplings and understorey shrubs) were absent or rare from the woodland impacting regeneration potential. Preferential browsing was recorded and was severe on all species of seedlings and shoot growth on the base sections of mature trees. This is a significant factor in the 'unfavourable condition' of the woodlands. Some areas of woodland have been enclosed highlighting the potential this has to reduce the impact of overbrowsing and encouraging diverse species structure and species composition.

Woodland management recommendations are discussed in relation to 1) reduce browsing impact, 2) restore missing life stage classes and 3)improve woodland habitat.

Paper presents a framework to quantify effectiveness of deer management at the landscape scale. Applied across 234km2 of Eastern England, they assessed management of muntjac and roe, measuring deer density (using thermal imaging distance transects 780km/year), fertility, neonatal survival, and culling to quantify source-sink dynamics over 2008-2010. Despite management that removed 23-40% of the annual population, large numbers of muntjac and roe deer dispersed annually into the wider landscape. In this landscape, for roe and muntjac, an annual cull of at least 60% and 53%, respectively, is required to offset annual production. Failure to quantify deer numbers and productivity has allowed high density populations to persist as regional sources contributing to range expansion, despite deliberative management programs, and without recognition by managers who considered numbers and impacts to be stable. Reversing an unfavorable condition of woodland biodiversity requires appropriate culls across large contiguous areas, supported by knowledge of deer numbers and fertility.

Management needs to take into account sources (areas from which deer migrate) and sinks (places they migrate to).

The paper outlines and examines the potential of different aging techniques carried out on 101 roe deer from a forest in Country Durham. Cementum layering in the incisor was found to be highly reliable but cementum layering in the molar was slightly less reliable. Estimates of age were made in relation to cusp wear and general attrition were strongly correlated with those from layering. The dry weight of the eye lens was also tested but found to be a less valuable method. Annual static mortality of both sexes were close to 30% through most of the life span and similarities with female roe deer in East Anglia and Denmark were found.

The paper examines the behavioural strategies of a population of male fallow deer in the New Forest in relation to mating and reproductive success. Male deer strategies included, those that defend territories on a lek, defend single territories or are non-territorial. The paper outlines the results of these strategies in relation to the likelihood of successful reproduction. Although some correlations were witnessed, the authors argue that male fallow deer are more likely to change strategies in light of the mating opportunities that are there.

The study examined the impact of changing climates on the abundance of Ixodes ricinus ticks. The study was conducted in Scotland using altitudinal gradients as a proxy alongside other variables including hosts, vegetation and weather effects. The study sites were located on 9 hills of open moorland habitat. The results indicated a positive association between deer abundance and tick abundance, however, alongside this was a strong negative association of tick abundance with altitude. From the results the authors inferred that ticks may become more abundant in higher altitudes in response to warming climates. This has wider implications on pathogen prevalence due to the higher occurrence of transmission hosts at higher altitudes (including red grouse and mountain hares).

The report examined livestock declines in relation to hill farming, changes in management associated with these declines and impacts of these changes on natural heritage and rural communities. Data was gathered from three case study areas, South Skye, West Borders and North Highlands with participative workshops carried out in each area. The report discusses the outcomes of these workshops and the implications of an identified decline in hill farming and crofting. Specifically in relation to deer, changes in the numbers and distribution of deer and any future management plans are likely to be key factors that will effect future livestock declines and the impact this will have on natural heritage.

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Impacts were not evenly distributed around the site, but were quite specific to particular locations or vegetation types. In the main extent of dry heath, blanket bog and alpine heath, grazing impacts were Low or Moderate to Low with any higher impacts concentrated along ridges, vantage points, alongside roads and tracks or in the sheltered corries. Trampling impacts were more pronounced than grazing impacts. Impacts were attributed to a range of herbivores. Deer appear to be largely responsible for the trampling impacts on high altitude blanket bog communities. The level of grazing impacts generally encountered in the heaths and blanket bog communities are unlikely to be lead to habitat deterioration. The High trampling impacts experienced across the site in the blanket bog and flush communities are not compatible with favourable habitat condition. If continued they are expected to lead to the loss of structural variety, fragmentation and peat erosion, the possible loss of extent and loss of vascular plant species diversity.

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This report details the results of the herbivore impact assessment undertaken in 2014 at Ben Vorlich SSSI. 74% of the plots visited were classified as having a low herbivore impact level. The overall trend across the site was one of decreasing grazing. In 2014 deer were found to be the principle herbivore.

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The study examined the prevalence of Anaplasma phagocytophilum (bacterium) in four deer species, fallow, roe, red and sika, in the New Forest. Anaplasma phagocytophilum is transmitted via ticks and can cause infectious diseases in humans, horses and other companion animals. Deer are known hosts however, the distribution among different deer populations within the same, or overlapping, geographical area has been unexplored. The results identify 29% of deer tested positively, with fallow deer having significantly lower prevalence than the other three species. These results are analysed in relation to habitat use and the influence this has on infection levels between the different deer species. Deer could be an indicator species of the localised infection pressure and risk to domestic animals and humans.

Landscape-scale population density estimates and assessments of deer impacts are needed to manage deer effectively. The relevant scale for assessment (and management) varies both with deer species and context of impact, but should always encompass at least the estimated biological range of the population of deer present in an area. Some impacts (e.g. deer-vehicle collisions, and risks of disease transmission) may need to be assessed at a wider regional level. This review considers the approaches available for assessing: absolute or relative animal abundance; impacts of ungulates on agriculture, forestry, amenity woodlands and other conservation sites; impacts on public safety (e.g. through road traffic accidents) and on humans or livestock through potential spread of disease.

Assessments of deer abundance should be done using systematic, replicatable methods that produce a relative index of population numbers that can be used to assess differences between years or areas. Initial estimate of absolute densities also important - for majority of situations, use fixed transects plus a simple index method (authors recommend Kilometric Index or trackway index). Remember local densities can vary markedly.

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Bird collisions along deer fences were monitored for 1 year at 27 sites in the Scottish Highlands. The majority (93%) of recorded collisions were by grouse species and at least 16% were fatal (carcasses found). Red grouse collisions were more frequent on fences surrounding pre-thicket plantations, while capercaillie collisions were more frequent on fences in native pinewoods. The distribution of collisions differed seasonally. Collisions by capercaillie were positively associated with areas of Vaccinium spp., whereas those by black grouse were negatively associated with grass and heather. This study adds weight to previous findings that fences are a frequent cause of mortality in capercaillie. Further work aimed at reducing collision rates is needed, but a policy of deer culling to achieve tree regeneration without deer fencing would be desirable wherever practicable and especially within the range and main native pinewood habitat of capercaillie.

A policy of deer culling to achieve tree regeneration without deer fencing would be desirable wherever practicable and especially within the range and main native pinewood habitat of capercaillie.

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Rising red deer population constitute an environmental problem related both to damages to the ecological value of moorland and to costs imposed on other land users, typically forest owners and farmers. Yet management actions to curtail the red deer population are largely in the hands of private estates, who may have little incentive to reduce deer numbers because of the influence of deer numbers on capital values. This paper describes the red deer problem, then characterizes it as an externality over which possible bargains could be struck. The reasons for the lack of such bargains in practice are linked to availability of government intervention and the possible large transaction costs of bargaining; whilst co-operative, multi-party management seems also to have become established.

Although the management actions of the Red Deer Management Groups do not necessarily address the public good externalities involved in excessive deer numbers, the inclusion of nature conservation organisations within Deer Management Groups is a step in the right direction.

Old paper so the structures of deer management may have changed since publication.

Bark stripping was monitored at 240 plots in Glenbranter Forest, Argyll over a 7 year period. Variation was analysed in relation to seasonality, stage of forest, tree species, girth and deer density. 'Hot spots' were identified where the intensity of damage was high. It was recorded that intensity of damage preceding and following the 'hot spot' period was much lower. The likelihood of repeated damage declined after the time of the initial wounding. The overall rates of damage were not found to correlate with the number of red deer pellet groups observed. However, within individual plots the intensity of damage was found to be higher in the area that most dung was found and varied with the forest stage. In thicket and high canopy forest greater damage intensity was observed at the edge compared to pre-thicket and pole stage forest greater damage intensity was observed in the interior.

Wounds on 8000 trees caused by red deer were measured and monitored over a 7 year period on 240 permanent plots Glenbranter Forest, Argyll. Wounds are detailed and analysed in relation to the forest stage, tree species and seasonal variation. Multiple wounding was measured in relation to the area of the trunk that was wounded. The height of wounds was analysed with most wounds recorded between 50 and 100cm above ground. The incidence of damage in relation to height and age of the tree is also discussed. Factors observed that had little impact on wound height were seasonality and aspect.

The paper reports the findings from the recorded yearly monitoring of bark stripping by red deer on 40 sites in Glenbranter Forest, Argyll. The recorded impacts of bark stripping (e.g. exposed xylem, rot and new bark growth) are discussed and analysed in relation to, time after bark stripping, extent of bark stripping, age of the tree and type of bark stripping (e.g. fraying and thrashing). Overall the impacts of bark stripping were reported as less severe than expected, however, timber defects may still exist below healed wounds.

The study examined bark-stripping damage in Glenbranter Forest, Argyll. Twenty nine sites were monitored for 10-18 years with 495 damaged trees compared to non-damaged trees in relation to their performance. Performance was assessed by measuring tree girth at 1-2 year intervals. The results highlighted the influence of the tree's growth stage at the point bark stripping damage occurred. Sites that were initially pre-thicket age, bark damaged trees had better survival than undamaged trees. This was also influenced by the age of the tree and the ability for a younger tree to compete with larger neighbouring trees. Overall the results identified that bark stripping had some influence on the growth of tees. However, this is only likely to cause 'negligible reductions in timber yield' and is likely to lessen further once the damage has healed.

Browsing by deer is an important factor in preventing the regeneration of Scots pine woodland. This 4-year study monitored use by red deer and roe deer and the incidence and severity of browsing to individual saplings across a range of Caledonian pinewood sites in the Highlands of Scotland and related sapling growth to browsing history and site characteristics. Browsing incidence during winter increased with use by red deer, but not roe deer, and increased with sapling height and the apparency of the sapling. The form of these relationships was influenced by the characteristics of the ground vegetation. Browsing during summer increased with use by roe deer, but not red deer, and was most frequent on saplings of around 1m tall. The study demonstrates the complexity of factors influencing the suppression of natural regeneration by deer, authors recommend combining further field studies with simulation modelling to allow predictions to be made of the conditions under which regeneration is likely to be successful in the presence of deer.

This 2 year study assessed the browsing impact of fallow deer on young broadleaved plantations. The results of the study identify the season variation in browsing (summer experiencing greater browsing impacts) and variation in seasonal browsing between different tree species. Previous browsing history was also found to influence the likelihood of the tree continuing to have browsing pressure, e.g. a tree browsed in year one was more likely to be browsed the following year. Finally the stage and extent of budding on an individual tree was also likely to influence the level of browsing damage.

This study examined the effects of browsing by red deer, relative to landscape factors such as variations in microclimate and topography, on soil biological properties and N cycling Creag Meagaidh. Samples were taken three times over the growing season of 2001 and soil cores were taken from four exclosures. Measures of soil biological properties and nitrogen availability were made. Although spatial and temporal variation were the dominant factors affecting soil biological properties and nitrogen dynamics in this ecosystem, herbivory also had consistent and significant effects on these measures. Browsing significantly reduced measures of DOC (27%), NO3- (48%), NH4+ (49%) and N-mineralisation (53%). Conclude that removal of browsing over 14 years has accelerated native woodland regeneration, leading to subsequent increases in soil C- and N- mineralisation, further increasing plant N supply and tree growth in this ecosystem.

Small sample size and study area

Study of browsing by red deer on suppressed saplings. Sapling banks at Glen Feshie and elsewhere confer a potential for rapid woodland development if red deer numbers were to be reduced. However the initial tree species composition is likely to differ from that of existing relict woodland.

Just one site.

The influence of red deer trampling on the germination and establishment of Betula pubescens was examined within two widespread upland vegetation communities, by testing seed germination in a range of gap types and by examining actual gap creation by red deer. In both Calluna and Molinia dominated vegetation communities, birch germination was relatively poor in all gaps created, but was most successful in bared soil. The low germination rate in deer-hoof sized gaps, even in bared soil, suggests that such gaps will not greatly enhance birch germination success in either vegetation type. Low densities of red deer created indentations in Molinia-dominated vegetation but created very few bare soil gaps. Red deer at low densities are unlikely to significantly enhance birch germination success through gap creation within these two vegetation types, unless on steeply sloping ground or in areas heavily used by the deer.

If regeneration of Betula pubescens is failing because of lack of seedling establishment, may need to consider scarifying ground as low deer densities unlikely to create adequate gaps.

One study site.

The paper draws on research which developed a participatory approach to deer management through the integration of local knowledge from deer managers with scientific and spatial ecological data using a simple Geographic Information System (GIS). Using two Deer Management Group case study areas in upland Scotland this information was used to predict red deer distribution which was found to be improved by the inclusion of local knowledge.

The model developed included combined knowledge from multiple sources and at different spatial scales thus creating a more realistic prediction of deer distribution. The use of this participatory approach has the potential to improve communication across different ownership boundaries.

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This paper reports on changes in woodland field-layer vegetation at Wytham Woods, Oxford, and the factors thought to be influencing these changes. Species occurrence was monitored in 163 permanent plots three times between 1973 and 2002 and related to management compartment and history. The two key findings of this paper are: (1) that the species composition of ancient woodlands may be moving along an 'undesirable' trajectory, from a conservation viewpoint; and (2) that the impact of a synergistic effect of changing canopy dynamics, nitrogen deposition and a rising deer population has resulted in an increase in grass species, at the expense of woodland herbs.

Getting the deer population correct may not always solve a conservation problem if other factors are also contributing.

Just one study site

A survey was completed of 78 lowland woodland sites in southern England with approved management plans for natural regeneration restocking. The sites had evidence of browsing animals (including deer). Many of the sites showed browsing damage to around 30% of all seedlings and, in particular of broadleaved species. Newly germinated seedlings were, in general, undamaged compared to those one or more years old.

Browsing can be damaging for natural regeneration management of woodlands. The site of this study very rarely had protection against browsing animals. Keeping deer population densities low will help to facilitate natural regeneration.

Although browsing is an issue for woodland regeneration it is not fully understood the amount of browsing that advanced growth can sustain or the deer population density above which natural regeneration is hindered.

The research proposes the use of the scientific community to help facilitate the decision making process for land managers by analysing and synthesising information on deer-forest relationships. From this it may be possible to better predict the outcomes of particular management options using models. The research explored a number of approaches that have been used to develop decision support tools (DST) and proposes the criteria for selecting the most appropriate DST.

Models can be used as decision support tools. They would need to incorporate the level of data that is available on the area and resource to be managed and the management objectives. Management objectives may need to change and adapt rapidly, therefore any model would need to be modified easily to identify new management scenarios, e.g. threshold population size for different tree species regeneration. The use of both top down and bottom up approaches are recommended to improve management, with bottom up approaches used to help gain insights about underlying mechanisms.

What is known about the complexity of the system and the availability of data can be limiting factors when designing models for decision support tools.

This study uses DNA sequences to characterise red deer genetic diversity across the Scottish islands (Inner and Outer Hebrides and Orkney) and mainland using ancient deer samples, and attempts to infer historical colonization events. We show that deer from the Outer Hebrides and Orkney are unlikely to have originated from mainland Scotland, implying that humans introduced red deer from a greater distance. Our results are also consistent with an origin from Ireland or Norway, suggesting long-distance maritime travel by Neolithic people to the outer Scottish Isles from an unknown source. Common haplotypes and low genetic differentiation between the Outer Hebrides and Orkney imply common ancestry and/or gene flow across these islands. Close genetic proximity between the Inner Hebrides and Ireland, however, corroborates previous studies identifying mainland Britain as a source for red deer introductions into Ireland.

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The study examined the diets of red and roe deer from four Scottish plantation forests using botanical and chemical analysis of 144 rumen samples. Samples were taken during the summer and winter to highlight any seasonal variation. The results identified differences in food preferences between the two species. Seasonal variability was recorded with both species eating more grasses and herbaceous plants in summer and more heaths in winter. Roe deer were more selective whereas red deer ate plants in proportion to their availability. Some overlap of preferred food and across the seasons were identified. Competition for food was likely to affect roe deer more than red deer.

This paper compared two methods of estimating deer abundance from dung: Faecal Accumulation Rate (FAR) and Faecal Standing Crop (FSC). Although FAR is more time consuming, the results produced have less potential for bias and should be used rather than FSC.

Use Faecal Accumulation Rate (FAR) rather than Faecal Standing Crop (FSC) to estimate deer densities

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The paper provides a brief review of past management and mismanagement of woodlands in relation to the wildlife that inhabit them, this includes deer management. A discussion of the present methods of control is given based on observation and cooperation between different stakeholders. Deer management is described in the context of south-west England.

The paper examines the factor(s) that were most associated (and potentially responsible for) determining variations in deer densities. The study is based on 20 plantation forests throughout Scotland which used dung-group counts to estimate deer densities. The analysis of the variables was in relation to a number of factors that included forest habitat structure, climate, vegetation composition, soil type, culling pressure, and the density of other deer species. The results identified a complex relationship between deer densities and the multiple variables which are analysed in the paper. The possible mechanisms behind the significantly correlated variables are discussed. Overall climatic adaptations and species dynamics between red and roe deer are identified as significant factors in deer density variation across Scotland.

The culling of sika deer in an area of native woodland was quantified. Culling of deer reduced the population density in an area of birch woodland and mature plantation was reduced 90% from 81.5 per 100 ha to 7.3 per 100 ha in four years. Sika was the most common deer species. It required 4-10 man hours to kill a sika deer and 10-88 man hours to shoot a sika hind. As population density decreased the necessity to cull deer increased, with night shooting the most efficient culling method.

Quantified information on the costs incurred through culling could be used when advising woodland grant scheme applicants.

The report provides information on current deer populations for the different species found in the UK. The benefits and challenges of managing wild deer, the economic costs and potential impacts on human populations (e.g. deer-vehicle collisions, disease) and other habitats are outlined. The main proposals from the report are categorised around 5 broad topic areas, 1) sources of advice on deer (including a national integrated system for providing advice, cooperative management and Deer Management Groups), 2) development of alternative methods for resolving deer problems (including non-lethal measures and design), 3) disease and animal welfare (including TB testing, carcass examination training, discourage supplementary feeding of wild deer to discourage artificially high concentrations), 4) legislation issues (including revising current deer legislation, revising close seasons for individual deer species) and 5) training for stalkers (including encouraging training and consolidate what is already available).

An evaluation of the issues, effects and costs by wild deer on agricultural land and forestry. Damage to agricultural fields are largely confined to those close to woodland. Damage is also likely to be 'patchy' and within a particular area. Damage can vary throughout the year and will impact on the severity of economic loss, e.g. grazing damage prior to harvest. Deer damage was perceived to be less than rabbits and Greylag geese by farmers. There are wider economic costs in relation to deer damage and deer management methods in forestry areas, e.g. fencing costs.

European policies for removing farmland from production and replacing them with woodland may lead to an increase in deer damage on farmland.

There has not been a Scottish-based study that has explored the direct effect of deer damage on agricultural crops. There are also potential impacts for pastoral farming, e.g. reduction in spring grass and reduced milk production. More data is needed on the economic costs of damage to forestry, in particular in relation to different tree species.

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Performance of distance sampling using thermal imaging of muntjac and roe deer was examined across 123 km(2) of conifer forest in Eastern England. Distance sampling was compared to estimates from drive counts in 2007. Used various models looking at detectability (deer are harder to see, even with thermal imaging, in dense woodland), sampling effort, deer being disturbed by people doing sampling, and habitat-specific Effective Strip Width (ESW). Distance sampling using thermal imaging is a robust and powerful method for estimating deer density. In heterogeneous forest density estimates will be improved by accounting for varying detectability among growth stages or habitats.

In heterogeneous forest density estimates will be improved by accounting for varying detectability among growth stages or habitats.

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Historically, fencing has been seen as the most effective method of protecting planted and regenerating trees within red deer range. However in recent years foresters have been reconsidering the appropriate balance between fencing and deer control in achieving sustainable forest management as it is now widely accepted that deer, in appropriate numbers are a natural and desirable part of the forest environment.

Abernethy Forest contains the largest single area of native pine in the UK, 1889 ha, 15.7% of the UK's native Scot's pine forest. Management centers on the conservation and extension of the native pinewood ecosystem by allowing the regeneration and development of a self-sustaining forest over the potential woodland area. Densities of red deer were up to 12 per km-2 in 1988/89, and were reduced to around 5 per km-2. Vegetation monitoring was initiated in 1989. By 1992 the percentage of seedlings with evidence of browsing has fallen from 72% to 43% with a 20% increase in established seedlings and saplings. Recent regeneration is occurring in all major vegetation types, though seedlings remain rare in many open heathland areas.

This experimental study examined whether habitat quality for Blackcaps in young woodland in eastern England was affected by deer, by comparing Blackcap behaviour, abundance, and condition between paired plots (half of each pair protected from deer). The vegetation in each pair of plots was the same age. The Blackcap is dependent on dense understory vegetation. We conclude that deer browsing in young woodland can alter habitat quality for understory-dependent species, with potential consequences for individual fitness and population productivity beyond the more obvious effects on population density.

Does not take into account possible importance of habitat heterogeneity

Management at Creag Meagaidh NNR has been to reduce populations of sheep and native red deer to levels compatible with achieving the active regeneration of native birch woodland. Sheep grazing has been removed from the Reserve area, and deer populations subject to reduction through culling and live sale. Little effect was observed on body weight or fecundity. There is marked (diurnal and) seasonal variation in number of animals recorded on the Reserve and it would appear that current usage is largely by transient individuals or relatively recent immigrants.

This literature analysis of 38 studies explores the multiple and varied determinants of deer impact in European forests. Red, roe and fallow deer studies were included with 80 distinct factors identified that determined browsing, bark stripping and fraying impact. Broader factors in relation to forest properties and structure were identified as well as disturbance and site-specific features. Silviculture can play a role in modifying the impacts, however localised, high intensity deer density and disturbance was found to overrule this. The authors identify the ways in which their findings could be incorporated into future research and management practices. Overall the authors recommend that deer research and management approaches integrate forest management, hunting and other stakeholder effects on deer impact.

This project used data from long term monitoring plots in a range of native pinewoods to parameterise a stand dynamics model to demonstrate the detrimental impact of deer browsing on the forest cycle.

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The paper presents the diet composition of sika deer in different sites across the UK, including 5 commercial coniferous forests in Scotland, New Forest, Hampshire and Wareham, Dorset. Rumen and faecal samples were analysed, with rumen samples taken from shot animals. Seasonal variation in diet is provided alongside variation and similarities between the different sites. Dietary composition was analysed in relation to forage availability and nutrient status.

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Faecal analysis was used to examine the diet composition of fallow deer in the New Forest on a monthly basis. The results identified deer to be predominantly grazes with grasses composing approximately 70% of annual forage and sedges, rushes, heather and broadleaved browse comprising the remainder. The variation in diet composition between male and female deer are examined and analysed in relation to habitat and seasonality.

The distributions of four species of deer (muntjac, roe, fallow and red) were recorded on a presence/absence basis in the King's Forest, Suffolk. The forest was divided into 228 compartments. The King's Forest is mainly coniferous commercial woodland 2360 ha in size. Distributions were compared with simple habitat and other variables that describe the compartments. Variations between the different deer species are identified.

The grouping patterns of fallow deer are examined based on a study of eight populations between 1986-9 in the New Forest and adjacent agricultural land in Southern England. The results of the study identified the sexual segregation of the deer populations and the variations between the male and female deer. These patterns are discussed in relation to ecological (including habitat type, habitat structure and season) and behavioural factors. Overall the study identified that female group size was not related to population density, however there was some recorded variation in group size in relation to closed and open habitat structure.

Deer have expanded their range and increased dramatically in abundance worldwide in recent decades. They inflict major economic losses in forestry, agriculture, and transportation and contribute to the transmission of several animal and human diseases. Their impact on natural ecosystems is also dramatic but less quantified. By foraging selectively, deer affect the growth and survival of many herb, shrub, and tree species, modifying patterns of relative abundance and vegetation dynamics. Cascading effects on other species extend to insects, birds, and other mammals. In forests, sustained overbrowsing reduces plant cover and diversity, alters nutrient and carbon cycling, and redirects succession to shift future overstory composition. Many of these simplified alternative states appear to be stable and difficult to reverse.

Given the influence of deer on other organisms and natural processes, ecologists should actively participate in efforts to understand, monitor, and reduce the impact of deer on ecosystems.

The paper summarises the key messages and issues that arose during a meeting in April 2000 organised by the Forest Ecology Group of the British Ecological Society entitled, 'ecological impacts of deer in lowland woods.' Discussions examine the causes of deer population increase and associated challenges for deer management, as well as the wider ecological responses to changing deer population dynamics.

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The research focused on the following sectors in which deer may contribute a value, whether negative (cost) or positive (benefit): road traffic accidents, agriculture, forestry and plantation woodlands, nature conservation, animal and human health, recreation and tourism, poaching and non-use values. The work also sought to highlight gaps in existing knowledge and make predictions of the possible future impacts if deer populations continue to increase. The approach was to quantify the costs and benefits (impacts) of deer in these different sectors, and where possible and relevant, express them explicitly as functions of deer population density. It enabled future estimates of the economic impact of deer to be made in line with current population trends and the financial implications of changing deer populations to be considered in the development of deer management strategies. Priorities for the research and management of deer for the future are also identified.

The paper reviews the direct and indirect impacts of introduced deer species on ecosystems and native deer populations, these include on forest composition, emphasis of impacts caused by native deer populations, disruption of herbivory in different habitats, increased competition leading to potential increased predation and impacts on deer ecology. Evidence is provided from across the globe which identify the varying impacts that different species can have on localised flora and fauna as well as habitat structures.

The authors argue that there is a need for further investigation into the potential impacts of interactions between introduced and native deer species as well as recognition of the ecological impacts.

In Wytham Woods, deer have increased markedly in recent years and they have had a major impact on the woodland vegetation, both the herb layer and the shrub layer (including the lower branches of trees); they also seriously affect the regeneration of forest trees and the regrowth of coppice. Over the same period, a number of woodland bird species have declined in numbers. The large declines seem to have occurred mainly in those species which nest in low vegetation, especially bramble. Bramble is an important element of the deer diet and its decline seems likely to be largely due to deer although canopy closure may also have reduced its abundance. Hence the declines in some bird species may be brought about by the increase in deer numbers.

The effects of red and roe deer in a small woodland restoration enclosure were studied over 16 months. Focus was given to the incidence and phenology of browsing, bark-stripping and antler thrashing damage on established trees (c. 12-15 years old). The aim was to identify the likely effects of damage to tree survival and the relative effects of the two deer species. The enclosure had a mix of local tree species, were kept free of red deer (until some were introduced for the purposes of other research) and roe were known to be present throughout. Although some damage was recorded by roe deer this was relatively low in comparison to that done by red deer. Damage increased markedly, especially browsing and ancillary damage on rowans and willows in summer and bark-stripping on these species was recorded in winter. Analysis of faeces identified more similarities than differences in diet between the two species, with dwarf shrub and grasses making up the majority of the diet and tree material only a small constituent.

Overall, deer damage was seen to have a negligible effect on tree survival despite the high population density of deer in the enclosure throughout the year. Increased variability in habitat structure, the authors argue, would be more beneficial than harmful to management aimed at wildlife conservation.

Exclosures were installed in the Breadalbane and Loch Lomond Environmentally Sensitive Areas (ESAs), to investigate the effects of excluding large wild herbivores on the growth of regenerating saplings within broadleaved woodlands fenced against domestic stock. After one year, significant increases in mean sapling height and reductions in browsing damage were found between saplings in cages where large herbivores were excluded, and those where only domestic stock was excluded. Browsing damage on saplings in the stock-fenced areas was considered to be due to red and roe deer. In the absence of control of deer numbers, additional fencing to exclude these large wild herbivores should be considered as a means of promoting natural regeneration in stock-exclosed broadleaved woodland.

Stock fenced woodlands where browsing damage on saplings is unacceptable need futher fencing to exclude deer or deer control by shooting.

The paper examines the impacts of grazing on chemical composition of heather moorland. The paper draws on a study of two moorland sites in north-east Scotland that were protected from grazing for 5 years, one grazed by red deer and the other by mountain hares. The results are identified and highlight that grazing was associated with the decrease in crude fibre content of heather. Nitrogen and phosphorous concentrations were effected by soil type and amount and type of grazing. Deer grazing on the current growth was heaviest on heather rich in nitrogen. The observed grazing preferences between the two species are also discussed.

The study explored the potential disturbance impact on wild deer diet composition from human recreational activities. The study was undertaken in the Scottish Highlands in spring (when recreational activity is high) and winter (when recreation activity is lower). Faecal samples were analysed in three habitat types, grassland, heather moorland and woodland with sites chosen close to a track (more disturbed) and at a distance from the track (less disturbed). In disturbed grass and woodland sites in spring, faecal evidence identifies a lower grassy diet and higher woody diet, This may highlight a wider behavioural response of a need for greater vigilance in exposed grassland to seek cover. In contrast, faecal evidence from all disturbed sites in winter indicated a more grassy diet with less heather than faeces from less-disturbed sites. This may highlight the seasonal decline in recreation and increase in hunting which would reverse the disturbance levels as hunting is not normally carried out in areas used for public recreation.

Reducing disturbance of deer in open grassland may bring nutritional benefits for deer.

This paper assessed the peer-reviewed literature on the effects of large native herbivores on other animals. Most studies only compared two levels of herbivory and most studies were short term.

Mean Lobarion lichen cover and species richness was significantly lower on both aspects of oak trees within deer exclosures than in grazed areas. Sapling density, dwarf-shrub height and cover were significantly greater within exclosures. The data suggest that increased shading by saplings around mature oaks in open woodland has had a detrimental effect on Lobarion lichens after 17-22 years of exclosure. Alternative strategies for encouraging woodland regeneration without harming the Lobarion lichen community are discussed

The aim of this study was to determine whether alternative methods of repellent could be used as an effective deterrence against red deer from negative browsing in Scotland. Three sulphur emitting odour based repellents (rotten eggs, pig's blood and wolf faeces) were used through area wind dispersal, to assess their efficacy in deterring deer from a given area. A significant increase in alert behaviours was observed with the presence of pig's blood, when compared with behaviour observed on control days, or the rotten eggs and wolf faeces repellent. The spatial use of the enclosure by the deer was also observed to be significantly reduced in the area where the repellent was placed for both the Scottish Deer Centre and Atholl Estates.

Area olfactory wind dispersal repellents are an effective form of deterrence, meaning they may be a cost-effective and easily accessible method of influencing deer behaviour, when used in conjunction with other management strategies.

The research examined external variables e.g. ecological dynamics, payoff structures, and the influence they had on cooperative behaviour in red deer management. Cooperation at the landscape level is likely to be influenced by the management objectives, e.g. sporting, biodiversity management, and the dynamics of the resource. This results in often complex scenarios that may help to drive cooperative behaviour.

Mechanisms for cooperation and cooperative behaviours are complex and the opportunities (and associated benefits) for cooperation will depend on the management objectives and dynamics of the resource.

Further work could explore the interactions between landowners with different interests and how this may affect the dynamics and potential for cooperation within deer management.

The paper argues for deer to be managed as a common property resource, in particular through more collaborative means such as Deer Management Groups. The habitat of the deer has been degraded over centuries, however, the use of scientific models, though important, only reduce the environmental uncertainty when exploring the relationship between grazing quality and deer population dynamics.

For the full potential of scientific models to be realised and utilised in deer management all landowners need to be involved and actively regarding deer as a common property resource.

Drawing on an example from the Western Highlands of Scotland the authors outline that the barrier to deer being managed as a common property resource are the incentives to behave strategically. Varying cull targets for estates may prove difficult to negotiate between and to find solutions. Likewise, negotiations between different values and interests between different decision makers within the deer management groups is needed.

Lyme borreliosis (LB) is the most common arthropod-borne disease of humans in the Northern hemisphere. The study aimed to identify the environmental factors influencing Ixodes ricinus nymph abundance and infection prevalence in questing nymphs using a large-scale study conducted across Scotland.The study was conducted at 25 sites, with ticks, host dung and vegetation surveyed alongside climatic variables from each site. A total of 2397 10m2 transect surveys were conducted and 13 250 nymphs counted. The average infection prevalence was 5.6% (range 0.8–13.9%). More questing nymphs and higher incidence of infection were found in areas with higher deer abundance and in mixed/deciduous compared to coniferous forests. Weaker correlations were seen with season, altitude, rainfall and ground vegetation. No correlation was found between nymph abundance and infection prevalence within the ranges encountered.

The authors identify a need for understanding the environmental conditions associated with tick abundance and pathogen prevalence. This may help to reduce the risk of exposure and predict future pathogen prevalence and distributions under environmental changes.

To be added

This report reviews a range of different potential approaches to establishing trees without fences, recommends those that are likely to be suitable for Scotland and provides an outline of trials that might be carried out at Creag Meagaidh and Beinn Eighe NNRs.

No-fence methods of protecting young trees from deer browsing that have the potential to work in Scotland, include: Sabre’ planting; ‘Natural’ protection using a range of native species; diversionary feeding at some distance from where the tree regeneration is wanted, along with culling; bud protection using sheep’s wool, plastic bud caps or plastic mesh nets that are stapled to the needles of conifers; chemical repellents.

The most suitable approach will depend on a range of factors; and a combination of approaches may work best.

To be added

Developing management plans for deer require methods that can measure abundance accurately and precisely. This study explored the potential of line transect surveys of deer dung. Line transect surveys may be better than dung clearance plot and standing crop methods and provide a more cost-effective alternative. The line transect surveys of deer dung were carried out to estimate sika deer abundance in the south of Scotland. The results corresponded with knowledge from cull and sightings data and precision was recorded as being generally high. The authors argue that there is unlikely to be one single method to estimate deer abundance under all circumstances. Instead each method needs to be compared to evaluate the relative merits.

Relatively high sika deer densities were observed in moorland areas, 300m from the forest edge. Adjacent areas, therefore, may also need to be incorporated to generate a more accurate abundance estimation in the region of interest.

Did not survey dung on adjacent open ground.

Both the extent of Scotland's red deer population and the negative impacts by herbivores on the natural heritage have been debated for decades. This report explains the overall trend in red deer density on open-hill ground in the Highlands and Islands, and regional variation, since censuses began in 1961. Its aim is to provide Scottish Natural Heritage with a comprehensive analysis of existing evidence on population status and trends. Variation in population density is explored in terms of two major drivers: culling effort; levels of sheep stocking. Forestry Commission Scotland land was excluded from the analysis. The impact of climate change was also beyond the scope of this study. The study examines the impact of deer and sheep on the natural heritage by analysing the likelihood that features in protected areas are in 'favourable' condition, using Site Condition Monitoring programme records. This report follows on from the preliminary findings on status and trends in density published in 2016, in Deer Management in Scotland. Since then, the statistical models have been refined to give more robust estimates. Some of the results of the study therefore differ from the earlier results.

Four methods of deer counting have been compared (ground, infrared, helicopter, dung counting). Additional data from digital camera images of groups have also been used to assess accuracy of visual counts. Ground and helicopter counts methods had the lowest coefficient of variations. In terms of cost-effectiveness, helicopter counts is the least-labour intensive, with costs for the other methods depending on the availability of existing man-power. Overall, helicopter counts is most likely to minimise errors whilst maximising cost-effectiveness. Accuracy can be improved by the use of digital photography for counting larger deer groups. Estimates are likely to be improved further by increasing the frequency of counts and using the same methods, counters and routes for repeat counts.

Helicopters are the quickest and least labour-intensive. The relative costs of helicopter vs. ground or dung counts will vary, depending on both the distance helicopters have to travel to the count area, and the availability of labour as an existing overhead to the deer manager. Further accuracy can be added to helicopter counts by the use of digital photography for counting larger deer groups.

To be added

To be completed

In this study, we investigate a species in Britain that has experienced both negative impact through overhunting in historical times and management efforts through culls and translocations. At the same time, there are regional populations that have been less affected by human influence. We use mtDNA and nuclear microsatellite DNA markers to investigate patterns of connectivity and diversity and find multiple insular populations in Britain that probably evolved within the Holocene (when the habitat was free of ice). We identify three concurrent processes. First, surviving indigenous populations show highly provincial patterns of philopatry, maintaining and generating population structure on a small geographic scale. Second, founder populations into habitat extirpated of native populations have expanded, but remained largely insular. Third, introductions into established populations generate some admixture. We discuss the implications for the evolution of diversity of the integration of natural processes with anthropogenic influences on population size and distribution.

An exclosure experiment in managed woodland in eastern England was used to examine bird species and guild responses to vegetation growth and herbivory. Several guilds or migrant species responded positively to deer exclusion and none responded negatively.

Just one site.

Red Deer were specifically identified within the Exmoor National Park Management Plan (2007-2012) valued for their conservation and local cultural significance. The plan also recognised a need for more data gathering to understand the population dynamics of other deer species within the park. The study was based on existing data on the different deer species within the area as well as direct consultation with deer managers, stalkers and local deer enthusiasts. This was used as a base to make recommendations for future deer monitoring. Roe, fallow, muntjac and sika deer were all recorded in the area alongside red deer. Aside from red deer, roe deer are the most wide-spread species. Muntjac have been recorded but in low numbers, however, if not managed effectively will likely increase. For Sika deer there were no vaidated sightings within the park, however, earlier sightings suggest they are close to the boundary with the park.

Although there are national recordings of deer data the author recommends regular collection of deer records from a local level. This would help improve and supplement the lower resolution of national recording data. This might include a questionnaire that asks about number of sightings of different species of deer. This is particularly useful if deer numbers are low for a particular species and so may not be seen on the days that deer are counted.