The report examines the impacts of herbivores in the Monadhliath SAC in light of a Scottish Natural Heritage report that concluded deer management at higher altitudes must change to prevent further blanket bog deterioration. Deer and sheep occupancy in the site were measured using faecal pellet group counts. Habitat condition data from the blanket bog was also collected to understand the ecological variables. The aim of the project was to investigate the spatial and temporal relationship between deer occupancy and habitat condition. The results are discussed. Overall it was seen that the significance of the impact of deer on the bog habitat was also dependent on the altitude. Higher altitudes experienced greater influences from weathering processes (deer therefore not having an 'additive' impact) whereas lower altitudes deer were more likely to be the greater impact.

More longitudinal data is needed on the previous dynamics of the blanket bog and the deer populations that were using it to gain a broader understanding and reduce uncertainty in the conclusions drawn on the extent of deer impact. Future dynamics are also an unknown. There is a general lack of research on high-altitude eroding peatlands and specifically on the interactions between deer and blanket bogs.

The paper provides a review of the history and status of red deer at the time of writing. This comprehensive discussion examined the relationship and history of the relationship between red deer and their habitat. There is detail provided on management up to World War I and since World War I as well as information on the red deer survey. The red deer survey examined and recorded information about all the areas that were inhabited in Scotland by red deer. It was carried out in 1952 in light of the growing problems related to the management of red deer. The discussion ends with a consideration of the (at time) present status and future conservation of red deer.

Part of a wider set of documents commissioned by the Deer Commission for Scotland which explored the practical systems which can be used to recognise monitor and regulate competence to shoot deer. This document outlines a draft definition of 'competence', including discussions on why there is a need to consider competence and also what competence means in practical terms in relation to shooting deer. This document sits within a broader context of a 'responsibility of care', a shooter 'knowing their limits as well as their abilities'.

National (e.g. National Occupational Standards) and/or industry recognised standards could be adopted to help define and standardise competence in deer shooting. These standards (and associated definition) will need to be responsive to potential future changes in legislation and industry needs.

The study examined the genetic composition of sika deer populations in the New Forest (Hampshire) and Purbeck region (Dorset). In comparison to the work done in relation to the hybridization of sika deer with red deer in Scotland, there has been little work into the more sporadic distributions of sika deer populations in England. The study aimed to evaluate 1) signs of recent interbreeding between red and sika deer in the New Forest, 2) how genetically distinct sika deer were between the New Forest and Purbeck region and 3) evidence of hybridisation within the populations. Results identified that the sika and red deer were genetically distinct in the New Forest. Overall the New Forest deer appeared to be more genetically pure bred than the Purbeck deer.

To be added

To be added

To be added

To be added

The culling of female deer in the close season is a key challenge and perceived issue in deer management and deer welfare. Welfare concerns are raised specifically in relation to shooting pregnant hinds and the potential to orphan young. The report reviews the effectiveness of current systems to securing the welfare of dependent young from culled female deer. The report draws on Game Dealer data and Deer Commission Scotland (DCS) Authorisation Data on females and calves culled during a year. Two key challenges are identified 1) the lack of comprehensive data and duplication of data and 2) the discrepancy in figures between the DCS authorisation data and those processed through the game dealers.

The report reviews and analyses stakeholder and public perceptions and expectations in relation to deer welfare in Europe and North America. The legal status of welfare of wild deer is also reviewed. This is in relation to the impact this may have on stakeholder perceptions and expectations alongside the implications for deer welfare. Training, legislative frameworks and interventions, weapons, shoot seasons and supplementary feeding are all outlined in relation to the impact on and challenges they raise for deer welfare.

The report reviews the limitations of data that has been collected in relation to culled deer. Information on the traceability of of carcasses from 'hill to plate' could help to inform the sustainable management of wild deer. This includes data collected by Deer Commission for Scotland (DCS) on cull returns, authorisation returns and venison dealer records. The extent of links between the different data sets are discussed. Overall it was found that there is the potential that the majority of carcasses killed under authorisation is submitted to DCS three times through cull returns, authorisation returns and venison dealer records.

Data should ideally be collected on individual carcasses and then analysed at the population or deer management unit scale.

The report identifies the need for a 'responsibility of care' which could help to inform a foundation for Deer Commission Scotland to develop a 'responsibility of care'. In relation to deer welfare the report discusses the following, 1) defining key terms, 2) perceptions, 3) expectations, 4) science and facts and 5) the current legal status of deer welfare and associated implications. A key theme from the discussion is on the implicit definition of welfare within current legislation and, in turn, deer management. There has been, however, an increase in awareness to deer welfare and that this should be explicit within deer management.

There remain questions on how welfare can be explicitly articulated and demonstrated within legislation and practice. Definition and consistent approaches need to be developed.

The report identifies key questions that could help to provide data on traceability, sustainable management and potential assessment for competence to help develop a unified system on culling wild deer. The questions are presented in tabular format highlighting the potential variables that would be needed (e.g. species, sex, age, stalker, date, location, diseases, bullet tracts). Of the 15 identified variables 11 are indicated as being 'essential' information with the remaining 4 being 'useful' information.

This report provides an overview on the costs and limitations of current methods used to assess competence in shooting deer. This report is part of a wider set of documents commissioned by the Deer Commission for Scotland which explored the practical systems which can be used to recognise monitor and regulate competence to shoot deer. Current methods for assessing methods of competence are outlined and reviewed, including formal qualifications and Food Standards Agency 'Trained Hunter Status'. Overall the report finds that although there are methods to assess competence there are gaps in what and who they assess. Legislative and voluntary approaches could be explored to address these limitations.

A number of limitations in the current methods for assessing competence are identified, including, 1) no formal training or assessment for night shooting, 2) there is no test or demonstration of competence in the open season and for those individuals who may be exempt, 3) there is currently no formal training or method of demonstrating the skills outlined in the Best Practice Guides and 4) there are inconsistencies between current methods of assessment.

The paper provides a commentary on the “Wild Deer Best Practice Event” hosted at Drumlanrig Castle, Dumfries and Galloway, 27-28 October 2010, conducted by Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH). The seminar included discussion on, 1) planning and habitat assessment, 2) deer behavior, 3) welfare and responsibility, 4) carcass hygiene, 5) effective syndicate and 6) rifle shooting. The paper provides an outline of deer management and an educational programme for hunters in Scotland. (N.B. paper is in Japanese)

The report provides a review on the role of natural mortality (e.g. predation and climate) on the dynamics of red and roe deer populations in the UK and Europe. This review is based on evidence from published and unpublished literature. The report provides an overview of national statistics on cull and non cull losses. Due to the potential for national statistics to underestimate levels of natural mortality the review also considers data from long term studies with marked animals and carcase surveys from intensive study areas. Specific agents of mortality, including predation (red fox on roe deer, lynx and wolf) and road traffic accidents are discussed. The relative roles of cull and non-cull mortality in Scotland are examined.

This review paper draws on scientific studies that examine the impacts of mammals on trees and forest crops. The paper identifies the likely impacts on trees in relation to the severity of browsing damage as well as other ecological variables including, tree species, age and season. There are studies that suggest some compensatory growth can occur after browsing but further work is needed in this. The success of tree regeneration is dependent on herbivore and seedling density. Browsing is also likely to impact on the composition of the forest habitat, including ground cover with a decrease in shrub and herbaceous plants and an increase in grasses, fern and mosses.

The authors identify the need for longer-term data that links the incidence of browsing damage to loss in yield. Likewise, further work into the effect of browsing on the likelihood of recovery could also be explored, in particular for trees growing in UK conditions.

The report reviews the different methods and options available for collecting cull data. This was a desk review of different systems currently utilised in 24 European countries (other than the UK). The report analyses the different administrative systems and licensing systems, as well as cull statistics and the requirements to make statutory cull returns and the mechanisms in place to ensure return and accuracy of the data. The types and amount of detail of data collected is discussed, highlighting large variation between different countries. Methods of data handling and storage are outlined alongside a discussion on carcase tagging. These discussions are summarised in relation to their application to Scotland.

A report reviewing the options used to assess competence in deer hunting in 10 countries from Europe, 6 American states and 4 Canadian provinces. This report is part of a wider set of documents commissioned by the Deer Commission for Scotland which explored the practical systems which can be used to recognise monitor and regulate competence to shoot deer. The report draws on the results on a survey completed by phone and written questionnaire of representatives from hunting organisations in the different countries. The findings highlighted that all countries surveyed have a test and/or assessment which hunters need to to demonstrate their competence to be allowed to hunt. There was a suggestion by many that any competence test 'should comply with International Hunter Education Association standards' this would help to reduce restrictions between countries.

In relation to a Scottish assessment system, the type and scope of the test(s) should be tailored to 'the purpose of the assessment'. The purpose could be relatively focused (e.g. reducing hunting accidents) and so only require a short course of training, whereas others may have a broad purpose (e.g. deer welfare, food safety). This require longer training time and have higher costs.

A report reviewing the systems used to monitor competence in 11 European countries, 4 American states and 2 Canadian provinces. This report is part of a wider set of documents commissioned by the Deer Commission for Scotland which explored the practical systems which can be used to recognise monitor and regulate competence to shoot deer. Representatives of authorities responsible for hunting were surveyed by phone and written questionnaire. The report draws on and outlines the results from the survey. Broadly the results identified that a newly introduced system for monitoring competence needs to be 'simple to understand and administer' and the purpose must be clear. The report discusses 4 potential options for to introduce a monitoring system, 1) ensuring public safety, 2) safeguarding deer welfare, 3) ensuring food safety and 4) deer populations.

A report reviewing the systems that could be used to monitor competence in Scotland. The report is based on findings from phone and written questionnaire of representative of authorities responsible for hunting in 8 European countries (these had similarities with Scotland in hunting culture, history and ethics), 4 American states and 2 Canadian provinces. The report outlines and discusses the outcomes of the survey and how this could help to inform a monitoring system in Scotland. The report ends with a list of principles for monitoring hunters' competence in Scotland, including, an agreed set of standards, a comprehensive, nation wide system, transparency and simple to administer/submit data. Four options for monitoring hunters' competence in Scotland are outlined, 1) ensuring public safety (operator and others), 2) safeguarding deer welfare (shot and dependent), 3) ensuring food safety (minimising contamination and clear traceability) and 4) deer biology behaviour and habitat.

This study examined the relations and population differences between roe, red and fallow deer in relation to the different stages of a forest. The study utilised game killed records, observation and faecal pellet grouping from Drummond Hill Forest, Scotland. Roe deer were more numerous in younger forest habitat, red deer at a later stage of development and fallow deer being most numerous in older forests. The results identified that the stage of growth of a forest habitat is a more important factor to determine the relative abundance of a deer species than inter-specific competition.

The study surveyed the current profile structure of the upland birchwoods in Ben Hope SSSI. The aim of the survey was to help assess and examine the extent of herbivore and other impacts on the woodland. Existing management plans were also reviewed. Previous reports have concluded that the birchwoods were in an unfavourable condition due to overbrowsing by deer and sheep. Key life stages (including saplings and understorey shrubs) were absent or rare from the woodland impacting regeneration potential. Preferential browsing was recorded and was severe on all species of seedlings and shoot growth on the base sections of mature trees. This is a significant factor in the 'unfavourable condition' of the woodlands. Some areas of woodland have been enclosed highlighting the potential this has to reduce the impact of overbrowsing and encouraging diverse species structure and species composition.

Woodland management recommendations are discussed in relation to 1) reduce browsing impact, 2) restore missing life stage classes and 3)improve woodland habitat.

Overabundant deer populations within urban areas are causing increasing problems. The research evaluated the levels of acceptance for lethal (e.g. hunting) and non-lethal (e.g. birth control) deer management strategies in the township of Greenwich, Connecticut, USA. Bow hunting was the preferred management strategy with the establishment of a special crossbow season. Exposure to deer and deer management, tolerance and willingness to pay for wild deer management can vary between rural to more urban areas.

Strategies in place need to be accepted by both hunters and the local communities. Strategies targeted at a landscape level may be more easily accepted than at a broader town level. Education about wild deer management strategies is also beneficial for wider community acceptance. Utilising local newspapers to help disseminate information about deer management can also be a method to reach more homeowners in an area.

Paper presents a framework to quantify effectiveness of deer management at the landscape scale. Applied across 234km2 of Eastern England, they assessed management of muntjac and roe, measuring deer density (using thermal imaging distance transects 780km/year), fertility, neonatal survival, and culling to quantify source-sink dynamics over 2008-2010. Despite management that removed 23-40% of the annual population, large numbers of muntjac and roe deer dispersed annually into the wider landscape. In this landscape, for roe and muntjac, an annual cull of at least 60% and 53%, respectively, is required to offset annual production. Failure to quantify deer numbers and productivity has allowed high density populations to persist as regional sources contributing to range expansion, despite deliberative management programs, and without recognition by managers who considered numbers and impacts to be stable. Reversing an unfavorable condition of woodland biodiversity requires appropriate culls across large contiguous areas, supported by knowledge of deer numbers and fertility.

Management needs to take into account sources (areas from which deer migrate) and sinks (places they migrate to).

The paper outlines and examines the potential of different aging techniques carried out on 101 roe deer from a forest in Country Durham. Cementum layering in the incisor was found to be highly reliable but cementum layering in the molar was slightly less reliable. Estimates of age were made in relation to cusp wear and general attrition were strongly correlated with those from layering. The dry weight of the eye lens was also tested but found to be a less valuable method. Annual static mortality of both sexes were close to 30% through most of the life span and similarities with female roe deer in East Anglia and Denmark were found.

The findings of the research identify a gap between the theory and practice of collaboration in natural resource management. Using examples of collaborative deer management in England, Scotland and the USA the research cross analysed these with the aim to understand the challenges and process of collaboration. In particular, the challenge around the role of power within the collaborative process was highlighted. For example, the capacity and ability to share power across different stakeholders can be limited if power has already been substantially wielded and boundaries already created.

Conveners and facilitators of collaborative processes need to be aware and reflexive of power relations and structures already in place that may hinder collaboration between different stakeholders. In creating the opportunity for collaboration to occur, this provides the potential for different cultural perspectives to be expressed and challenges/issue redefined as well as allowing all stakeholder voices to be heard.

Collaboration can be difficult with pressures on already limited time and resources.

The paper examines the behavioural strategies of a population of male fallow deer in the New Forest in relation to mating and reproductive success. Male deer strategies included, those that defend territories on a lek, defend single territories or are non-territorial. The paper outlines the results of these strategies in relation to the likelihood of successful reproduction. Although some correlations were witnessed, the authors argue that male fallow deer are more likely to change strategies in light of the mating opportunities that are there.

The study examined the impact of changing climates on the abundance of Ixodes ricinus ticks. The study was conducted in Scotland using altitudinal gradients as a proxy alongside other variables including hosts, vegetation and weather effects. The study sites were located on 9 hills of open moorland habitat. The results indicated a positive association between deer abundance and tick abundance, however, alongside this was a strong negative association of tick abundance with altitude. From the results the authors inferred that ticks may become more abundant in higher altitudes in response to warming climates. This has wider implications on pathogen prevalence due to the higher occurrence of transmission hosts at higher altitudes (including red grouse and mountain hares).

The report examined livestock declines in relation to hill farming, changes in management associated with these declines and impacts of these changes on natural heritage and rural communities. Data was gathered from three case study areas, South Skye, West Borders and North Highlands with participative workshops carried out in each area. The report discusses the outcomes of these workshops and the implications of an identified decline in hill farming and crofting. Specifically in relation to deer, changes in the numbers and distribution of deer and any future management plans are likely to be key factors that will effect future livestock declines and the impact this will have on natural heritage.

This study uses a multi-attribute choice experimental approach to quantify the various characteristics of the talking experience to determine the value that amateur stalkers attach to the stag numbers, the landscape and other attributes. Unlike previous applications of stated preference, a large proportion (one-third) of a full factorial design is used to present stalkers with different alternative stalking packages within a postal survey. High animal quality (weight, maturity and trophy) was valued highest, followed by an availability of alternative game species. There is potential for providers to extract a premium for mixed stalking. Commercial timber operations and quality stalking are not easily compatible, but the prospect of mixed stalking is relevant given the increasing pressure from conservationists for the re-establishment of native woodland. Where good quality animals are available, British stalkers and repeat visitors clearly prefer traditional open hill red deer stalking. Sporting estates could introduce their clients to woodland stalking as part of a mixed package. These results indicate a way forward that could be agreeable to both deer managers and conservationists.

To be completed

Impacts were not evenly distributed around the site, but were quite specific to particular locations or vegetation types. In the main extent of dry heath, blanket bog and alpine heath, grazing impacts were Low or Moderate to Low with any higher impacts concentrated along ridges, vantage points, alongside roads and tracks or in the sheltered corries. Trampling impacts were more pronounced than grazing impacts. Impacts were attributed to a range of herbivores. Deer appear to be largely responsible for the trampling impacts on high altitude blanket bog communities. The level of grazing impacts generally encountered in the heaths and blanket bog communities are unlikely to be lead to habitat deterioration. The High trampling impacts experienced across the site in the blanket bog and flush communities are not compatible with favourable habitat condition. If continued they are expected to lead to the loss of structural variety, fragmentation and peat erosion, the possible loss of extent and loss of vascular plant species diversity.

To be completed

This report details the results of the herbivore impact assessment undertaken in 2014 at Ben Vorlich SSSI. 74% of the plots visited were classified as having a low herbivore impact level. The overall trend across the site was one of decreasing grazing. In 2014 deer were found to be the principle herbivore.

The report outlines the means of estimating the numbers of deer shot that do not go through game dealers and are instead eaten at home or distributed to friends (known as domestic consumption). If deer carcasses are sold it is required by law that it is recorded through a game keeper. There are two methods that can be used to estimate domestic consumption, 1) comparison of cull returns with dealer records and 2) surveys of stalkers. Data is provided to compare cull and venison dealer data from the last 10 years, with 16% of carcasses consumed domestically. The limitations of this method are discussed (see also 'A report on limitations of data currently collected' by the same author). A survey of stalkers indicated a higher domestic consumption percentage, again the limitations of this approach is discussed.

To be completed

The study examined the prevalence of Anaplasma phagocytophilum (bacterium) in four deer species, fallow, roe, red and sika, in the New Forest. Anaplasma phagocytophilum is transmitted via ticks and can cause infectious diseases in humans, horses and other companion animals. Deer are known hosts however, the distribution among different deer populations within the same, or overlapping, geographical area has been unexplored. The results identify 29% of deer tested positively, with fallow deer having significantly lower prevalence than the other three species. These results are analysed in relation to habitat use and the influence this has on infection levels between the different deer species. Deer could be an indicator species of the localised infection pressure and risk to domestic animals and humans.

The report builds on a draft position statement on wildlife welfare set out by SNH that set out the 'essential principles' on welfare the organisation adopts. This report presents how these principles can be applied to individual animals. Welfare is regarded as a spectrum from negative/bad welfare to positive/good welfare that an individual animal can be on at any time. A range of findings are discussed in the report including, promotion of positive welfare, animal responses to challenges that may influence welfare and an animal's freedom and capacity to react to external challenges. Variation between species is discussed in relation to how this may influence the behavioural responses to external challenges. The report highlights that welfare should be regarded as relational to the status as perceived and judged by the animal itself.

Landscape-scale population density estimates and assessments of deer impacts are needed to manage deer effectively. The relevant scale for assessment (and management) varies both with deer species and context of impact, but should always encompass at least the estimated biological range of the population of deer present in an area. Some impacts (e.g. deer-vehicle collisions, and risks of disease transmission) may need to be assessed at a wider regional level. This review considers the approaches available for assessing: absolute or relative animal abundance; impacts of ungulates on agriculture, forestry, amenity woodlands and other conservation sites; impacts on public safety (e.g. through road traffic accidents) and on humans or livestock through potential spread of disease.

Assessments of deer abundance should be done using systematic, replicatable methods that produce a relative index of population numbers that can be used to assess differences between years or areas. Initial estimate of absolute densities also important - for majority of situations, use fixed transects plus a simple index method (authors recommend Kilometric Index or trackway index). Remember local densities can vary markedly.

To be added

Bird collisions along deer fences were monitored for 1 year at 27 sites in the Scottish Highlands. The majority (93%) of recorded collisions were by grouse species and at least 16% were fatal (carcasses found). Red grouse collisions were more frequent on fences surrounding pre-thicket plantations, while capercaillie collisions were more frequent on fences in native pinewoods. The distribution of collisions differed seasonally. Collisions by capercaillie were positively associated with areas of Vaccinium spp., whereas those by black grouse were negatively associated with grass and heather. This study adds weight to previous findings that fences are a frequent cause of mortality in capercaillie. Further work aimed at reducing collision rates is needed, but a policy of deer culling to achieve tree regeneration without deer fencing would be desirable wherever practicable and especially within the range and main native pinewood habitat of capercaillie.

A policy of deer culling to achieve tree regeneration without deer fencing would be desirable wherever practicable and especially within the range and main native pinewood habitat of capercaillie.

To be completed

To be completed

The research explored the effectiveness of 'urban deer zones' in Indiana, USA. These were created by the Indiana Division of Fish and Wildlife in 1996 and liberalised the opportunity and bag limits for hunters in areas that were experiencing increasing conflict between people and deer. Surveys were distributed to randomly selected residents and resident hunters in three areas. The survey highlighted that the deer population was perceived to have stayed the same or had grown since the establishment of the urban deer zone. Hunting is the most 'acceptable' form of management, however, the majority of respondents did not allow hunting on their property.

Perceptions of the deer population and management approaches varied between respondents of different backgrounds, e.g hunters, former hunters, pro-hunters, anti-hunters and animal rights activists. Non-traditional techniques (e.g. sharpshooting, trap-and-kill) were not supported by respondents, however, additional opportunities (e.g. increased crossbow use, increased muzzleloader seasons) were supported.

Access to land and property to licensed hunters will restrict opportunities for the management of urban deer populations, even using traditional techniques and during hunting seasons. Non-traditional techniques may need to be implemented in the future to manage deer, however, there will need to be further work to understand the negativity towards these approaches and to help increase public support for these approaches.

Rising red deer population constitute an environmental problem related both to damages to the ecological value of moorland and to costs imposed on other land users, typically forest owners and farmers. Yet management actions to curtail the red deer population are largely in the hands of private estates, who may have little incentive to reduce deer numbers because of the influence of deer numbers on capital values. This paper describes the red deer problem, then characterizes it as an externality over which possible bargains could be struck. The reasons for the lack of such bargains in practice are linked to availability of government intervention and the possible large transaction costs of bargaining; whilst co-operative, multi-party management seems also to have become established.

Although the management actions of the Red Deer Management Groups do not necessarily address the public good externalities involved in excessive deer numbers, the inclusion of nature conservation organisations within Deer Management Groups is a step in the right direction.

Old paper so the structures of deer management may have changed since publication.

Bark stripping was monitored at 240 plots in Glenbranter Forest, Argyll over a 7 year period. Variation was analysed in relation to seasonality, stage of forest, tree species, girth and deer density. 'Hot spots' were identified where the intensity of damage was high. It was recorded that intensity of damage preceding and following the 'hot spot' period was much lower. The likelihood of repeated damage declined after the time of the initial wounding. The overall rates of damage were not found to correlate with the number of red deer pellet groups observed. However, within individual plots the intensity of damage was found to be higher in the area that most dung was found and varied with the forest stage. In thicket and high canopy forest greater damage intensity was observed at the edge compared to pre-thicket and pole stage forest greater damage intensity was observed in the interior.

Wounds on 8000 trees caused by red deer were measured and monitored over a 7 year period on 240 permanent plots Glenbranter Forest, Argyll. Wounds are detailed and analysed in relation to the forest stage, tree species and seasonal variation. Multiple wounding was measured in relation to the area of the trunk that was wounded. The height of wounds was analysed with most wounds recorded between 50 and 100cm above ground. The incidence of damage in relation to height and age of the tree is also discussed. Factors observed that had little impact on wound height were seasonality and aspect.

The paper reports the findings from the recorded yearly monitoring of bark stripping by red deer on 40 sites in Glenbranter Forest, Argyll. The recorded impacts of bark stripping (e.g. exposed xylem, rot and new bark growth) are discussed and analysed in relation to, time after bark stripping, extent of bark stripping, age of the tree and type of bark stripping (e.g. fraying and thrashing). Overall the impacts of bark stripping were reported as less severe than expected, however, timber defects may still exist below healed wounds.

The study examined bark-stripping damage in Glenbranter Forest, Argyll. Twenty nine sites were monitored for 10-18 years with 495 damaged trees compared to non-damaged trees in relation to their performance. Performance was assessed by measuring tree girth at 1-2 year intervals. The results highlighted the influence of the tree's growth stage at the point bark stripping damage occurred. Sites that were initially pre-thicket age, bark damaged trees had better survival than undamaged trees. This was also influenced by the age of the tree and the ability for a younger tree to compete with larger neighbouring trees. Overall the results identified that bark stripping had some influence on the growth of tees. However, this is only likely to cause 'negligible reductions in timber yield' and is likely to lessen further once the damage has healed.

The report provides an overview of reasons behind ungulate presence in urban areas and the consequences of overabundance in urban areas. Urban areas provide good habitat and protection from hunters and other predators increasing deer populations in these areas. Although they bring significant benefits there are also increasing conflicts between deer and humans. Challenges include, the overlapping political boundaries and responsibilities and wide ranging public opinion on appropriate management methods. A number of management methods are discussed including conflict reduction methods (e.g. fencing, repellents, vehicle collision mitigation), population reduction (e.g. capture and relocate, sharpshooting, predator reintroduction), fertility control and administrative options.

The focus of management strategies should be more on the reduction of conflicts between deer and people and the management of the deer population at 'an acceptable level' rather than the complete elimination of the conflict or deer herd. This may involve short-term and long-term plans alongside the incorporation of multiple stakeholders.

Diversity of opinions can be challenging for deer management when involving collaboration with the wider public. There needs to be appropriate methods used. Legislation, policy and procedures can also be challenging to deer management, in particular when needing to identify who is responsible, accountable and has the appropriate authority to plan, coordinate and implement deer management plans.

Browsing by deer is an important factor in preventing the regeneration of Scots pine woodland. This 4-year study monitored use by red deer and roe deer and the incidence and severity of browsing to individual saplings across a range of Caledonian pinewood sites in the Highlands of Scotland and related sapling growth to browsing history and site characteristics. Browsing incidence during winter increased with use by red deer, but not roe deer, and increased with sapling height and the apparency of the sapling. The form of these relationships was influenced by the characteristics of the ground vegetation. Browsing during summer increased with use by roe deer, but not red deer, and was most frequent on saplings of around 1m tall. The study demonstrates the complexity of factors influencing the suppression of natural regeneration by deer, authors recommend combining further field studies with simulation modelling to allow predictions to be made of the conditions under which regeneration is likely to be successful in the presence of deer.

This 2 year study assessed the browsing impact of fallow deer on young broadleaved plantations. The results of the study identify the season variation in browsing (summer experiencing greater browsing impacts) and variation in seasonal browsing between different tree species. Previous browsing history was also found to influence the likelihood of the tree continuing to have browsing pressure, e.g. a tree browsed in year one was more likely to be browsed the following year. Finally the stage and extent of budding on an individual tree was also likely to influence the level of browsing damage.

This study examined the effects of browsing by red deer, relative to landscape factors such as variations in microclimate and topography, on soil biological properties and N cycling Creag Meagaidh. Samples were taken three times over the growing season of 2001 and soil cores were taken from four exclosures. Measures of soil biological properties and nitrogen availability were made. Although spatial and temporal variation were the dominant factors affecting soil biological properties and nitrogen dynamics in this ecosystem, herbivory also had consistent and significant effects on these measures. Browsing significantly reduced measures of DOC (27%), NO3- (48%), NH4+ (49%) and N-mineralisation (53%). Conclude that removal of browsing over 14 years has accelerated native woodland regeneration, leading to subsequent increases in soil C- and N- mineralisation, further increasing plant N supply and tree growth in this ecosystem.

Small sample size and study area

Study of browsing by red deer on suppressed saplings. Sapling banks at Glen Feshie and elsewhere confer a potential for rapid woodland development if red deer numbers were to be reduced. However the initial tree species composition is likely to differ from that of existing relict woodland.

Just one site.

Using both qualitative and quantitative data analysis this paper investigates the potential role of market incentives to increase venison production as a mechanism to resolve conflicts over wild red deer management in the Scottish Highlands. Results suggest the approach is unlikely to be effective because investments in venison production would bring conflict with more important non-pecuniary objectives of landownership such as ‘sporting quality’ and ‘exclusivity’. At a broader level caution should be urged when considering the deployment of economic instruments to resolve contemporary conservation conflicts where profit maximisation is not the dominant objective and/or where the target group is extremely wealthy.

The influence of red deer trampling on the germination and establishment of Betula pubescens was examined within two widespread upland vegetation communities, by testing seed germination in a range of gap types and by examining actual gap creation by red deer. In both Calluna and Molinia dominated vegetation communities, birch germination was relatively poor in all gaps created, but was most successful in bared soil. The low germination rate in deer-hoof sized gaps, even in bared soil, suggests that such gaps will not greatly enhance birch germination success in either vegetation type. Low densities of red deer created indentations in Molinia-dominated vegetation but created very few bare soil gaps. Red deer at low densities are unlikely to significantly enhance birch germination success through gap creation within these two vegetation types, unless on steeply sloping ground or in areas heavily used by the deer.

If regeneration of Betula pubescens is failing because of lack of seedling establishment, may need to consider scarifying ground as low deer densities unlikely to create adequate gaps.

One study site.

The paper draws on research which developed a participatory approach to deer management through the integration of local knowledge from deer managers with scientific and spatial ecological data using a simple Geographic Information System (GIS). Using two Deer Management Group case study areas in upland Scotland this information was used to predict red deer distribution which was found to be improved by the inclusion of local knowledge.

The model developed included combined knowledge from multiple sources and at different spatial scales thus creating a more realistic prediction of deer distribution. The use of this participatory approach has the potential to improve communication across different ownership boundaries.

To be completed

This paper reports on changes in woodland field-layer vegetation at Wytham Woods, Oxford, and the factors thought to be influencing these changes. Species occurrence was monitored in 163 permanent plots three times between 1973 and 2002 and related to management compartment and history. The two key findings of this paper are: (1) that the species composition of ancient woodlands may be moving along an 'undesirable' trajectory, from a conservation viewpoint; and (2) that the impact of a synergistic effect of changing canopy dynamics, nitrogen deposition and a rising deer population has resulted in an increase in grass species, at the expense of woodland herbs.

Getting the deer population correct may not always solve a conservation problem if other factors are also contributing.

Just one study site

A survey was completed of 78 lowland woodland sites in southern England with approved management plans for natural regeneration restocking. The sites had evidence of browsing animals (including deer). Many of the sites showed browsing damage to around 30% of all seedlings and, in particular of broadleaved species. Newly germinated seedlings were, in general, undamaged compared to those one or more years old.

Browsing can be damaging for natural regeneration management of woodlands. The site of this study very rarely had protection against browsing animals. Keeping deer population densities low will help to facilitate natural regeneration.

Although browsing is an issue for woodland regeneration it is not fully understood the amount of browsing that advanced growth can sustain or the deer population density above which natural regeneration is hindered.

The research proposes the use of the scientific community to help facilitate the decision making process for land managers by analysing and synthesising information on deer-forest relationships. From this it may be possible to better predict the outcomes of particular management options using models. The research explored a number of approaches that have been used to develop decision support tools (DST) and proposes the criteria for selecting the most appropriate DST.

Models can be used as decision support tools. They would need to incorporate the level of data that is available on the area and resource to be managed and the management objectives. Management objectives may need to change and adapt rapidly, therefore any model would need to be modified easily to identify new management scenarios, e.g. threshold population size for different tree species regeneration. The use of both top down and bottom up approaches are recommended to improve management, with bottom up approaches used to help gain insights about underlying mechanisms.

What is known about the complexity of the system and the availability of data can be limiting factors when designing models for decision support tools.

The paper explores the potential of community-based collaboration and decision-making within wildlife management. It recognises the potential benefits and challenges associated with community-based collaboration, in particular identifying that collaboration between community stakeholders and wildlife managers can result in improved identification of human-wildlife interactions and wildlife-related impacts on communities. The paper draws on research undertaken with 10 veteran white-tailed deer managers from the USA.

To go beyond just having stakeholder input to a more collaborative relationship between organisations and community stakeholders requires the 'appropriate sharing of responsibility' between the two. Increasing local capacity to be involved with wildlife management is recognised as an important role of wildlife management agencies. It is felt that such an opportunity to increase collaboration and the capacity for collaboration can result in a long lasting and positive influence on both the communities involved and wildlife management.

Not all wildlife management issues can addressed at the community level. Therefore, management organisations will be required to prioritise those that can involve other stakeholders effectively and assess the risks that may be associated by not engaging with communities.

The paper examines and evaluates Deer Management Groups (DMGs) and the stakeholders involved. DMGs are intended to help facilitate more collaborative engagements. The paper identifies a tension between different expectations and agendas between stakeholders when establishing shared goals.

Maintenance of DMGs and collaboration is dependent on 'appropriate' role allocation and the adoption of responsibilities; definition of values and goals and establishing communication and trust within the networks.

The potential of collaboration to reduce the costs of sustainable management remains contentious and, in times of increasing resource constraints, the potential mismatch between resource investment and anticipated goals is likely to become a critical issue, which may challenge the goals and capacity of the state and existing managers.

Due to the mobile nature of deer, the management of them can result in conflicts between different stakeholders that have different management goals. This policy and practice note investigates who the stakeholders were for deer management, where collaborative management approaches can be effective for wild deer management and outlines the potential barriers to collaboration.

The paper identifies two specific needs to achieve effective collaboration. Firstly, a strong leader motivated to be able to overcome challenges. Secondly, having the time to allow trust and understanding of the different perspectives to develop between the different stakeholders. The note also highlights the potential of more novel approaches to engage different stakeholders with collaborative processes, e.g. choice experiments to highlight the relative importance of factors influencing management decisions, group interviews, field workshops and GIS programmes.

Conflicting interpretations of scientific evidence can be a limiting factor to collaboration. Geographic Information Systems (computer-based mapping software) could be utilised to generate maps using agreed scientific evidence and integrated with local knowledge. This may help to reduce conflicts through perceived misinterpretations and also improve the accuracy of ecological models through the inclusion of local knowledge.

This is the project website for 'Collaborative Frameworks in Land Management: A Case Study on Integrated Deer Management'. The website includes links to webpages with detailed information about different aspects of the project as well as supporting documents. The overall aim of the research was to produce a framework for the development of effective, informed, inclusive, collaborative and sustainable management of rural resources in Britain. Wild deer were used as a case study.

A follow-on project will be undertaken to examine the potential of increasing the capacity of conservation agencies to incorporate the participatory methods utilised within the research in their own management practices.

This study uses DNA sequences to characterise red deer genetic diversity across the Scottish islands (Inner and Outer Hebrides and Orkney) and mainland using ancient deer samples, and attempts to infer historical colonization events. We show that deer from the Outer Hebrides and Orkney are unlikely to have originated from mainland Scotland, implying that humans introduced red deer from a greater distance. Our results are also consistent with an origin from Ireland or Norway, suggesting long-distance maritime travel by Neolithic people to the outer Scottish Isles from an unknown source. Common haplotypes and low genetic differentiation between the Outer Hebrides and Orkney imply common ancestry and/or gene flow across these islands. Close genetic proximity between the Inner Hebrides and Ireland, however, corroborates previous studies identifying mainland Britain as a source for red deer introductions into Ireland.

To be added

The guide brings together insights and experiences of community-based collaborative work carried out by wildlife managers from the northeast region of the USA in relation to deer management. The guide does not aim to be a prescriptive set of guidelines but rather provide broad insights and cases of success that could be adapted by other deer managers wishing to undertake community-based collaboration. The approach to deer management is to see the deer as a resource and not a pest.

The Guide presents five factors that enable community-based practices; adequate knowledge, essential working relationships, effective local leadership, sufficient credibility, and commitment to a common purpose. To achieve these five facilitating factors were also identified; stakeholder involvement, education and learning, informative communication, wildlife agency flexibility and assessment.

Some communities, although wishing to collaborate on decision-making, do not want to take responsibility for the implementation of the management and may resist in this aspect. Land managers may need to be aware of this.

The study is based on community-based collaborative deer management in suburban areas of New York and Massachusetts. The research examined the evolution of deer management issues, the success of collaborative management and what influenced the success of collaborative management. The study identifies that specific factors that can enhance the success of collaborative management may need to be used at different stages as management continues.

The study identifies 7 factors to help designing intervention strategies including, identifying the community environment (past and present), identifying who will be affected, how far the issue has evolved, identify criteria to assess the success of the decision-making process, determine the community social dynamics, identify where capacity needs enhancing and design intervention strategies that target enhancing capacity.

More work could be conducted to verify and expand the number of factors identified that could help to enhance the collaborative decision-making process. Furthermore the potential of facilitation of collaborative engagement in relation to the factors identified is needed to evaluate their effectiveness.

The paper explores the potential of a community-based collaboration project developed between a village in Japan and a local non-governmental organisation. The project was in response to the increasing Sika deer population (which was resulting in human-wildlife conflicts) and a declining hunter population. The aim of the community-based collaboration project was to make economic contributions to the local economy as well as managing the high Sika deer numbers. The means of doing this was to attract visitor hunters and develop a hunter education programme.

The community-based programme did provide wider economic benefits through income generation and employment for some local residents. The educational programmes included also helped to recruit younger hunters. The authors argue that a combination of recreational hunting and hunter education in rural areas can promote more community-based wildlife management in high population density societies where hunting participation is declining.

The deer population levels at the end of the study were at a desirable level. Long-term monitoring of the deer population is needed to assess whether this system has longevity in achieving a balanced target deer population.

The study examined the diets of red and roe deer from four Scottish plantation forests using botanical and chemical analysis of 144 rumen samples. Samples were taken during the summer and winter to highlight any seasonal variation. The results identified differences in food preferences between the two species. Seasonal variability was recorded with both species eating more grasses and herbaceous plants in summer and more heaths in winter. Roe deer were more selective whereas red deer ate plants in proportion to their availability. Some overlap of preferred food and across the seasons were identified. Competition for food was likely to affect roe deer more than red deer.

This paper compared two methods of estimating deer abundance from dung: Faecal Accumulation Rate (FAR) and Faecal Standing Crop (FSC). Although FAR is more time consuming, the results produced have less potential for bias and should be used rather than FSC.

Use Faecal Accumulation Rate (FAR) rather than Faecal Standing Crop (FSC) to estimate deer densities

Methods for culling wild red deer were compared by observing behaviour and collecting post mortem samples from wild deer shot: (i) by a single stalker during daytime; (ii) by more than one stalker during daytime; (iii) by using a helicopter for the deployment of stalkers and carcase extraction; or (iv) by a single stalker at night, and compared with farmed red deer shot in a field or killed at a slaughterhouse. Culling by a single stalker during the day and shooting in a field were the most accurate in achieving placement of a shot in a target area, but when compared across all methods, there were no significant differences in the percentages of deer that were either wounded or appeared to have died immediately after the first shot. Plasma cortisol concentrations in deer shot using helicopter assistance were similar to those in deer at the slaughterhouse, but higher than deer shot at night or during the day by a single stalker, or in a field. Deer shot using helicopter assistance and also deer culled by a collaborative and single stalking during the day had lower muscle glycogen concentrations than those culled by a single stalker at night. There was no evidence that a particular culling method was associated with an increased risk of accidental or pre-culling injury. If a helicopter is used to assist culling, the deer are more likely to be disturbed before they are shot and therefore, measures should be taken to minimise the disturbance to the deer.

There was no evidence that a particular culling method was associated with an increased risk of accidental or pre-culling injury. If a helicopter is used to assist culling, the deer are more likely to be disturbed before they are shot and therefore, measures should be taken to minimise the disturbance to the deer.

The research compared four population management methods used in the city of Bloominton, Minnesota. The methods used to reduce the deer population were, 1) controlled hunts in large parks, 2) opportunistic hunting by conservation officers, 3) sharpshooting over bait by park rangers, and 4) sharpshooting over bait by police officers on smaller public land. Collectively the four methods reduced the winter deer density by 46% and deer-vehicle collisions by 30%. The costs of management methods used should be balanced against the economic benefits produced including vehicle repair costs, improved road and public safety and reduced costs in deer damage to vegetation.

Sharpshooting over bait was deemed to be the most adaptable of the methods used and it was argued that this method could be used in many urban situations.

there is evidence that lead bullets are a source of contamination for scavenging birds and mammals. With this in mind, copper bullets were trialled at three varied UK sites during deer control operations undertaken to achieve nature conservation objectives. Their accuracy and killing power were recorded and compared to that of traditional lead bullets. No significant differences were found in accuracy or killing power. These results, coupled with experience elsewhere, suggest that copper bullets are a viable alternative to lead bullets.

Further restrictions on the use of lead ammunition should be considered, to encourage a switch to non-toxic ammunition across terrestrial habitats. This would be a proportionate response to the problems associated with lead ingestion.

To be completed

The paper explores the barriers to collaboration in wild deer management in the Scottish Highlands. It highlights, in particular, the potential of recreation hunting to be incorporated within the government's strategy to contain the increasing deer population. Coming from the perspective of landowners, the paper utilises a qualitative and quantitative analysis which highlights the barriers to shooting for conservation. These include, personal preference and the tradition of hunting, antipathy to conservationists and the perception of land stewardship.

The paper calls for greater collaboration between conservationists and landowners to create a 'positive context' to allow more joint initiatives and activities to manage wild deer. The expansion of commercial hunting is the 'best practical approach' to help resolve the current conflict over wild deer.

This paper reviews the contribution made by wildlife to the rural economy and to British society more widely. Traditional activities such as deer stalking remain an important source of wealth and employment, but their overall contribution is declining relative to non-consumptive uses such as wildlife tourism. Although much of the literature focuses on the negative impacts of mammals on commercial activities such as agriculture and forestry, these impacts are relatively insignificant in economic terms at both regional and national levels. Wild meat provides a niche in the contemporary food market, but, although demand is growing, growth is handicapped by a fragmented supply chain and lack of marketing.

The contribution made by wild mammals to the rural economy appears small, even in relatively remote regions, but this may partly reflect gaps in the literature regarding their contribution via less formal markets, hobby activities, and in supporting ecosystem equilibrium.

We investigated in a study on red deer whether rates of peptide and glucose transport in the small intestines are also reduced during winter as part of the thrifty phenotype of winter-acclimatized animals, or whether transport rates are increased during winter in order to exploit poor forage more efficiently. Our results support the latter hypothesis. We found in a feeding experiment that total energy intake was considerably lower during winter despite ad libitum feeding. Together with reduced food intake, mass of visceral organs was significantly lower and body fat reserves were used as metabolic fuel in addition to food. However, efficacy of nutrient absorption seemed to be increased simultaneously. Extraction of crude protein from forage was higher in winter animals, at any level of crude protein intake.

Reduced appetite of red deer during winter avoids energy expenditure for unproductive search of scarce food and further renders the energetically costly maintenance of a large gut and visceral organs unnecessary. Nevertheless, extraction of nutrients from forage is more efficient in the winter to attenuate an inevitably negative energy balance.

The paper provides a brief review of past management and mismanagement of woodlands in relation to the wildlife that inhabit them, this includes deer management. A discussion of the present methods of control is given based on observation and cooperation between different stakeholders. Deer management is described in the context of south-west England.

A practical guide to deer management and stalking within urban areas, written by a deer manager in the Glasgow area. The increase in deer numbers within urban areas has resulted in poaching, deer vehicle collisions, negative impacts on agriculture and forestry. The welfare of deer, consequently, is suffering. The guide provides practical advice for managing deer in urban areas, including identifying where management approaches may be more negatively perceived.

Qualified deer managers are needed in urban areas. Urban deer management is reducing incidents of deer vehicle collisions, reduce poaching and also fulfills the legal obligations for landowners in deer management.

Urban deer management is not always perceived as positively as upland deer stalking experiences. There are also difficulties in managing deer in more built up areas and where there are relatively larger human populations.

The paper examines the factor(s) that were most associated (and potentially responsible for) determining variations in deer densities. The study is based on 20 plantation forests throughout Scotland which used dung-group counts to estimate deer densities. The analysis of the variables was in relation to a number of factors that included forest habitat structure, climate, vegetation composition, soil type, culling pressure, and the density of other deer species. The results identified a complex relationship between deer densities and the multiple variables which are analysed in the paper. The possible mechanisms behind the significantly correlated variables are discussed. Overall climatic adaptations and species dynamics between red and roe deer are identified as significant factors in deer density variation across Scotland.

The culling of sika deer in an area of native woodland was quantified. Culling of deer reduced the population density in an area of birch woodland and mature plantation was reduced 90% from 81.5 per 100 ha to 7.3 per 100 ha in four years. Sika was the most common deer species. It required 4-10 man hours to kill a sika deer and 10-88 man hours to shoot a sika hind. As population density decreased the necessity to cull deer increased, with night shooting the most efficient culling method.

Quantified information on the costs incurred through culling could be used when advising woodland grant scheme applicants.

The report provides information on current deer populations for the different species found in the UK. The benefits and challenges of managing wild deer, the economic costs and potential impacts on human populations (e.g. deer-vehicle collisions, disease) and other habitats are outlined. The main proposals from the report are categorised around 5 broad topic areas, 1) sources of advice on deer (including a national integrated system for providing advice, cooperative management and Deer Management Groups), 2) development of alternative methods for resolving deer problems (including non-lethal measures and design), 3) disease and animal welfare (including TB testing, carcass examination training, discourage supplementary feeding of wild deer to discourage artificially high concentrations), 4) legislation issues (including revising current deer legislation, revising close seasons for individual deer species) and 5) training for stalkers (including encouraging training and consolidate what is already available).

An evaluation of the issues, effects and costs by wild deer on agricultural land and forestry. Damage to agricultural fields are largely confined to those close to woodland. Damage is also likely to be 'patchy' and within a particular area. Damage can vary throughout the year and will impact on the severity of economic loss, e.g. grazing damage prior to harvest. Deer damage was perceived to be less than rabbits and Greylag geese by farmers. There are wider economic costs in relation to deer damage and deer management methods in forestry areas, e.g. fencing costs.

European policies for removing farmland from production and replacing them with woodland may lead to an increase in deer damage on farmland.

There has not been a Scottish-based study that has explored the direct effect of deer damage on agricultural crops. There are also potential impacts for pastoral farming, e.g. reduction in spring grass and reduced milk production. More data is needed on the economic costs of damage to forestry, in particular in relation to different tree species.

To be completed

Performance of distance sampling using thermal imaging of muntjac and roe deer was examined across 123 km(2) of conifer forest in Eastern England. Distance sampling was compared to estimates from drive counts in 2007. Used various models looking at detectability (deer are harder to see, even with thermal imaging, in dense woodland), sampling effort, deer being disturbed by people doing sampling, and habitat-specific Effective Strip Width (ESW). Distance sampling using thermal imaging is a robust and powerful method for estimating deer density. In heterogeneous forest density estimates will be improved by accounting for varying detectability among growth stages or habitats.

In heterogeneous forest density estimates will be improved by accounting for varying detectability among growth stages or habitats.

To be completed