Overabundant deer populations within urban areas are causing increasing problems. The research evaluated the levels of acceptance for lethal (e.g. hunting) and non-lethal (e.g. birth control) deer management strategies in the township of Greenwich, Connecticut, USA. Bow hunting was the preferred management strategy with the establishment of a special crossbow season. Exposure to deer and deer management, tolerance and willingness to pay for wild deer management can vary between rural to more urban areas.

Strategies in place need to be accepted by both hunters and the local communities. Strategies targeted at a landscape level may be more easily accepted than at a broader town level. Education about wild deer management strategies is also beneficial for wider community acceptance. Utilising local newspapers to help disseminate information about deer management can also be a method to reach more homeowners in an area.

To be completed

The research explored the effectiveness of 'urban deer zones' in Indiana, USA. These were created by the Indiana Division of Fish and Wildlife in 1996 and liberalised the opportunity and bag limits for hunters in areas that were experiencing increasing conflict between people and deer. Surveys were distributed to randomly selected residents and resident hunters in three areas. The survey highlighted that the deer population was perceived to have stayed the same or had grown since the establishment of the urban deer zone. Hunting is the most 'acceptable' form of management, however, the majority of respondents did not allow hunting on their property.

Perceptions of the deer population and management approaches varied between respondents of different backgrounds, e.g hunters, former hunters, pro-hunters, anti-hunters and animal rights activists. Non-traditional techniques (e.g. sharpshooting, trap-and-kill) were not supported by respondents, however, additional opportunities (e.g. increased crossbow use, increased muzzleloader seasons) were supported.

Access to land and property to licensed hunters will restrict opportunities for the management of urban deer populations, even using traditional techniques and during hunting seasons. Non-traditional techniques may need to be implemented in the future to manage deer, however, there will need to be further work to understand the negativity towards these approaches and to help increase public support for these approaches.

The report provides an overview of reasons behind ungulate presence in urban areas and the consequences of overabundance in urban areas. Urban areas provide good habitat and protection from hunters and other predators increasing deer populations in these areas. Although they bring significant benefits there are also increasing conflicts between deer and humans. Challenges include, the overlapping political boundaries and responsibilities and wide ranging public opinion on appropriate management methods. A number of management methods are discussed including conflict reduction methods (e.g. fencing, repellents, vehicle collision mitigation), population reduction (e.g. capture and relocate, sharpshooting, predator reintroduction), fertility control and administrative options.

The focus of management strategies should be more on the reduction of conflicts between deer and people and the management of the deer population at 'an acceptable level' rather than the complete elimination of the conflict or deer herd. This may involve short-term and long-term plans alongside the incorporation of multiple stakeholders.

Diversity of opinions can be challenging for deer management when involving collaboration with the wider public. There needs to be appropriate methods used. Legislation, policy and procedures can also be challenging to deer management, in particular when needing to identify who is responsible, accountable and has the appropriate authority to plan, coordinate and implement deer management plans.

A survey was completed of 78 lowland woodland sites in southern England with approved management plans for natural regeneration restocking. The sites had evidence of browsing animals (including deer). Many of the sites showed browsing damage to around 30% of all seedlings and, in particular of broadleaved species. Newly germinated seedlings were, in general, undamaged compared to those one or more years old.

Browsing can be damaging for natural regeneration management of woodlands. The site of this study very rarely had protection against browsing animals. Keeping deer population densities low will help to facilitate natural regeneration.

Although browsing is an issue for woodland regeneration it is not fully understood the amount of browsing that advanced growth can sustain or the deer population density above which natural regeneration is hindered.

The paper explores the potential of community-based collaboration and decision-making within wildlife management. It recognises the potential benefits and challenges associated with community-based collaboration, in particular identifying that collaboration between community stakeholders and wildlife managers can result in improved identification of human-wildlife interactions and wildlife-related impacts on communities. The paper draws on research undertaken with 10 veteran white-tailed deer managers from the USA.

To go beyond just having stakeholder input to a more collaborative relationship between organisations and community stakeholders requires the 'appropriate sharing of responsibility' between the two. Increasing local capacity to be involved with wildlife management is recognised as an important role of wildlife management agencies. It is felt that such an opportunity to increase collaboration and the capacity for collaboration can result in a long lasting and positive influence on both the communities involved and wildlife management.

Not all wildlife management issues can addressed at the community level. Therefore, management organisations will be required to prioritise those that can involve other stakeholders effectively and assess the risks that may be associated by not engaging with communities.

The guide brings together insights and experiences of community-based collaborative work carried out by wildlife managers from the northeast region of the USA in relation to deer management. The guide does not aim to be a prescriptive set of guidelines but rather provide broad insights and cases of success that could be adapted by other deer managers wishing to undertake community-based collaboration. The approach to deer management is to see the deer as a resource and not a pest.

The Guide presents five factors that enable community-based practices; adequate knowledge, essential working relationships, effective local leadership, sufficient credibility, and commitment to a common purpose. To achieve these five facilitating factors were also identified; stakeholder involvement, education and learning, informative communication, wildlife agency flexibility and assessment.

Some communities, although wishing to collaborate on decision-making, do not want to take responsibility for the implementation of the management and may resist in this aspect. Land managers may need to be aware of this.

The study is based on community-based collaborative deer management in suburban areas of New York and Massachusetts. The research examined the evolution of deer management issues, the success of collaborative management and what influenced the success of collaborative management. The study identifies that specific factors that can enhance the success of collaborative management may need to be used at different stages as management continues.

The study identifies 7 factors to help designing intervention strategies including, identifying the community environment (past and present), identifying who will be affected, how far the issue has evolved, identify criteria to assess the success of the decision-making process, determine the community social dynamics, identify where capacity needs enhancing and design intervention strategies that target enhancing capacity.

More work could be conducted to verify and expand the number of factors identified that could help to enhance the collaborative decision-making process. Furthermore the potential of facilitation of collaborative engagement in relation to the factors identified is needed to evaluate their effectiveness.

The paper explores the potential of a community-based collaboration project developed between a village in Japan and a local non-governmental organisation. The project was in response to the increasing Sika deer population (which was resulting in human-wildlife conflicts) and a declining hunter population. The aim of the community-based collaboration project was to make economic contributions to the local economy as well as managing the high Sika deer numbers. The means of doing this was to attract visitor hunters and develop a hunter education programme.

The community-based programme did provide wider economic benefits through income generation and employment for some local residents. The educational programmes included also helped to recruit younger hunters. The authors argue that a combination of recreational hunting and hunter education in rural areas can promote more community-based wildlife management in high population density societies where hunting participation is declining.

The deer population levels at the end of the study were at a desirable level. Long-term monitoring of the deer population is needed to assess whether this system has longevity in achieving a balanced target deer population.

The research compared four population management methods used in the city of Bloominton, Minnesota. The methods used to reduce the deer population were, 1) controlled hunts in large parks, 2) opportunistic hunting by conservation officers, 3) sharpshooting over bait by park rangers, and 4) sharpshooting over bait by police officers on smaller public land. Collectively the four methods reduced the winter deer density by 46% and deer-vehicle collisions by 30%. The costs of management methods used should be balanced against the economic benefits produced including vehicle repair costs, improved road and public safety and reduced costs in deer damage to vegetation.

Sharpshooting over bait was deemed to be the most adaptable of the methods used and it was argued that this method could be used in many urban situations.

A practical guide to deer management and stalking within urban areas, written by a deer manager in the Glasgow area. The increase in deer numbers within urban areas has resulted in poaching, deer vehicle collisions, negative impacts on agriculture and forestry. The welfare of deer, consequently, is suffering. The guide provides practical advice for managing deer in urban areas, including identifying where management approaches may be more negatively perceived.

Qualified deer managers are needed in urban areas. Urban deer management is reducing incidents of deer vehicle collisions, reduce poaching and also fulfills the legal obligations for landowners in deer management.

Urban deer management is not always perceived as positively as upland deer stalking experiences. There are also difficulties in managing deer in more built up areas and where there are relatively larger human populations.

A survey conducted in 1998 by the Highways Agency identified the number of road traffic accidents involved deer in the UK was 20,000 to 42,000 per annum, with around 20% these accidents occurring in Scotland. This report reviews the different measures available to reduce the frequency and severity of such road traffic accidents. These were evaluated against the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of the methods and in relation to existing roads and new road schemes and associated traffic volume. The measures were categorised as 1) preventing (or controlling) crossing, e.g. highway fencing, roadside warning reflectors, reduction in deer oppulation densidt; 2) increasing driver awareness, e.g. driver warning systems including fixed signage, speed responsive signage; and 3) provision of safer crossing places, e.g. dedicated overpasses or underpasses, modifying existing structures, creation of designated 'cross-walks' across road carriageways. Deer-vehicle collisions have often been studied as being an animal welfare issue. The authors argue that there is also additional economic costs, e.g. human injury and vehicle damage. Consequently, an allocated annual budget at national (trunk roads) and regional (non-trunk roads) that targets the reduction of deer-vehicle collisions (and associated costs) is needed.

A general principle from reviewing all the methods was the need for mitigation methods to focus primarily on channeling deer towards safer crossing points rather than preventing crossing altogether. Preventing crossing may result in deer forcing routes through and potentially becoming trapped within the carriageways. Prevention to cross may also cause fragmentation and/or isolation of deer populations and other large wildlife species.

Data on deer-vehicle collisions and potential mitigation measures were gathered from published and unpublished reports. Some of these were contradictory to the effectiveness of reducing deer numbers.

The aim of the research was to analyse the public perceptions of wild deer management issues, hunting effectiveness and changes in perception before and after a deer hunt. These relative changes in perception were used as an indicator of the overall 'cultural carrying capacity' to shotgun-archery deer hunting. Three surveys were carried out across a seven year period with all residents of a community in Groton, Connecticut. Overall hunting was perceived to reduce the deer population, deer damage to landscaped areas and spread of disease, e.g. Lyme disease. The hunt was perceived to be conducted as 'good to excellent' with some residents who initially did not support hunting would do so in the future.

Hunting as a management tool is more likely to be perceived as beneficial to and supported by a community if it is 'fast, safe and maximizes harvest opportunities'. All areas that may be impacted by the deer population should be targeted in order to maximize a hunts success and satisfaction from the local community. The authors recommend that to help evaluate the hunt success the key concerns about a high deer population in a community should be documented before and after hunts.

The authors identify the difficulty of agreeing an 'optimum' deer population level based on multiple stakeholder views. This can influence the use of cultural carrying capacity as a guideline for managing deer in residential areas. The authors argue that there have not been studies that have identified the point at which the cultural carrying capacity for deer has been achieved within a community.

The strategy sets out the key commitments for managing the National Forest Estate by Forest Enterprise Scotland (agency of Forestry Commission Scotland). The strategy outlines the approaches for the management plan. These approaches aim to align with the WDNA challenges. The National Forest Estate is located in lowland, upland, rural and urban areas of Scotland and the plan will be reflective of these different areas.

The strategy includes the need for working collaboratively with different stakeholders and organisations, e.g. Lowland Deer Network Scotland, Association of Deer Management Groups. Training programmes, public awareness and quality assurance standards are also highlighted as key management approaches.

An overview of the challenges related to overabundant white-tailed deer populations in suburban areas. The challenges raised are largely related to the potential impacts on people within these areas as well as highlighting the decline in deer herd health as habitat becomes scarce or degraded within the suburban areas. The paper also outlines potential obstacles associated with suburban deer population control and potential management methods that could be utilised including, hunting, sharpshooting, trap and translocate, trap and euthanasia, fencing, fertility controls, predator reintroduction, neighbour cooperation and localised options for small areas of land e.g gardens.

Local contexts must be considered when managing deer populations and the methods/approaches used. A combination of different management methods is likely to be more effective than the use of one method. The local community should be involved with deer management with clear, measurable long-term goals outlined from the outset, e.g. reduced reports of deer-vehicle collisions. This will allow for better evaluation of the management methods used.

The National Deer Collisions Project is recording information on deer collisions and incidents. Concerns over this issue go beyond deer welfare and population size and should include the costs to the wider economy (human health and vehicles damage). Solutions proposed to reduce collisions are three-ways: provide safer crossing points for deer (e.g. overpasses), increase drivers awareness, preventing or controlling crossing.

The presence of deer in urban areas is raising challenges for deer managers to control the population at a sustainable level whilst also considering public safety. The prevalence of deer in urban areas although management plans are in place the potential impact on traffic safety has not been fully explored. Conducted in Iowa, USA within three selected urban deer management zones, the research explored the relationship between deer-vehicle collisions, deer density and land use. The research utilised secondary data on deer population and deer-vehicle collision and deer carcass removals.

Adjacent land-use can be a predictive variable in relation to the frequency of deer-vehicle collisions and resulting injury outcomes. Roadway and non-roadway factors could be used to identify locations on roadways that are likely to significantly impact deer species and safety, and mitigating measure put in place.

A key limitation identified by the authors is the lack of accuracy and consistency in reporting deer carcass removal and deer-vehicle crashes.

There has been an increase in the demand for relief from deer/elk problems in suburban environments. In turn the importance for understanding the variance in public acceptability of different management methods is needed. The study compared 10 studies in suburban areas of New York, Missouri and Colorado for the acceptability of deer/elk management methods on 3 variables, gender, deer population preference and personal experience with deer problems.

The study identified different trends based on the 3 variables. Men were more likely to accept lethal management methods to women who preferred non-lethal and no management approaches. Lethal management was also more likely to be accepted by those that wished to see a reduction in the deer population. This was consistent across the 3 areas. In comparison the relative importance of problem experiences by deer/elk varies by location. Contextual information of the area may assist local negotiations about management options.

Increasing community involvement with deer management has resulted in new challenges and opportunities for wildlife agencies, community leaders, local government and others involved with community-based management. The research was conducted in 8 north-eastern states of the USA and involved in-depth interviews and workshops with long-term deer managers to identify key aspects of a community's capacity to be involved and elements of intervention within deer management.

The researchers recommended the following to improve community capacity within community-based deer management: knowledge, credibility, relationships, common purpose and local leadership. Furthermore the following strategies for interventions to improve community capacity were recommended: assessment of the stakeholders and wildlife agencies involved, stakeholder involvement, educations, informative communication and an understanding of the agency perspective. These all need to be articulated by wildlife agencies for them to be systematically incorporated within intervention design programmes.

The study evaluated the costs, labour involved and effectiveness of different methods to reduce deer numbers in an urban environment. The study was conducted in one site, the University of Wisconsin Arboretum. The methods evaluated were; dart-administered immobilizing drugs, Clover traps, drive nets, rocket nets, shooting over bait and driving deer out of fenced areas.

The most efficient method from the study was shooting deer over bait. This was also regarded as being the most acceptable lethal control method to the public in comparison to controlled hunts.

Multiple removal methods were conducted simultaneously. This may have influenced the effectiveness of different methods and to an extent biased the results.

In this study, we investigate a species in Britain that has experienced both negative impact through overhunting in historical times and management efforts through culls and translocations. At the same time, there are regional populations that have been less affected by human influence. We use mtDNA and nuclear microsatellite DNA markers to investigate patterns of connectivity and diversity and find multiple insular populations in Britain that probably evolved within the Holocene (when the habitat was free of ice). We identify three concurrent processes. First, surviving indigenous populations show highly provincial patterns of philopatry, maintaining and generating population structure on a small geographic scale. Second, founder populations into habitat extirpated of native populations have expanded, but remained largely insular. Third, introductions into established populations generate some admixture. We discuss the implications for the evolution of diversity of the integration of natural processes with anthropogenic influences on population size and distribution.

The study was based on the impact of fallow deer on 74 young broadleaf plantations in a lowland area of eastern Suffolk. The variables of plantation size, shape, species composition, the extent of cover for deer and the extent of alternative browse were examined in relation to the extent of deer damage. Small plantations, plantations that contained much cover and were adjacent to woodland were more likely to experience higher levels of damage compared to plantations on open-arable habitats. The practical options for reducing damage by manipulating the habitat and coppice management practice are discussed.

The research was conducted in Fontenelle Forest, a 16.5km2 'serene natural area' surrounded by developed landscapes and residential areas. A deer management programme was established through public engagement. Deer populations were harvested with deer density reducing from 27 deer/km2 in 1995 to 15 deer/km2. Native plant habitats were heavily browsed during 1995 and under controlled hunting deer densities were reduced and signs of recovery were then seen for these habitats.

Although deer densities and impacts were reduced in areas where high harvests were conducted in neighbouring areas where hunter access was limited have not seen the same results. For long-term, cooperative management in maintaining deer population levels the following factors were needed; collaboration, communication, leadership, research-based management, adaptive management, persistence and resources.

The study area is rapidly developing and there is increasing concern of the potential impact of white-tailed deer populations on agricultural areas, for resource professionals and landowners. Multiple stakeholders were brought together to form a 'taskforce' to evaluate different management options. A report was developed which included 11 management alternatives and 9 final recommendations. A staff member was appointed to develop a management and to implement the task force recommendations and public meetings organised to gain feedback on the plan developed. The implementation of the plan, including direct herd reduction methods, was generally perceived positively with the exception of animal rights activists.

The success of this collaborative process was attributed to; 1) resource and political support from the county government, 2) support from all stakeholders to generate a solution, 3) an effective task force process, 4) education and information programme incorporated into the process, and 5) public meetings included to capture multiple values, opinions and attitudes.

Conducted in Irondequoit, New York, USA, the research examined the role that gender plays in informing responses about suburban deer management. In-depth, semi structured interviews and questionnaires were conducted as part of the research. The results highlighted that women were more likely to consider more criteria than men in relation to managing an overabundant deer herd in the suburban area of Irondequoit. Women were also more concerned about the wider impacts of management techniques on the local community as well as direct deer management issues.

There were four recommendations from the research for deer management agencies; 1) consider gender when bringing stakeholders together to participate in decision making, 2) place emphasis on deliberative approaches to participation; 3) there may be a need to highlight both men's and women's concerns, and 4) more female professionals should be recruited (and/or retained) within deer management agencies.

The study compared the habitat usage by roe deer and the introduced Chinese muntjac within a 1200ha study area in Theford Forest, a commercially managed coniferous forest in Eastern England. The study was conducted between March 2000 and March 2001. Higher roe deer densities were seen in young plantations compared to muntjac where numbers were higher in older stands and areas with greater cover of bramble. Generally, muntjac showed greater habitat selectivity, with overlap between the two species in use of individual stands significantly lower than overlap in use of growth stages. Habitat overlap was greatest in the winter when both species have a higher usage of bramble increasing the likelihood of competition in the event of food scarcity.

The authors highlight that this is the first study to present data on habitat use by muntjac and roe deer in a forested landscape over a continuous 12 year period. Consequently, there is a need for further studies of resource use, forage depletion, and the extent and nature of any exploitation competition for deer populations occurring within the same geographical area. There is also a need for a wider understanding of ecosystem impacts of increasing populations of muntjac and roe deer.

At high densities, deer populations may have adverse effects upon and within their environment. This review we explores published and unpublished information to derive density thresholds for deer species in relation to impacts upon agriculture, forestry, conservation habitats, road traffic, and human and livestock health in the UK. Impact levels are affected by many factors other than absolute density. Gives stats on road traffic accidents. We therefore seek to establish the range of densities within which negative impacts might start to occur and which should trigger objective monitoring of actual impacts. Concludes that deer density alone is unlikely to be a good predictor of impact, and suggest that long-term management should be based on assessment both of actual impacts and apparent density of deer.

Impact levels vary considerably with habitat. Management needs to consider local circumstances, and setting an arbitrary threshold for population size is unlikely to be helpful.

This research explored the impacts of deer on lowland areas in the UK, with a particular focus on agriculture, forestry and conservation habitats. Damage done by deer can vary depending on the ecology, species, feeding habit and population density. Agricultural damage is largely caused by fallow, red and roe deer with most reports of damage to pasture or cereal crops. Woodland in lowland UK are more likely to be damaged by fallow, red and roe deer. The cost of damage to agricultural crops and woodland was found to be negligible. In conservation habitats damage was largely seen in woodlands, in particular coppice managed woodlands. In heathlands, grassland and wetlands grazing damage by deer was seen to be beneficial by restricting scrub growth.

It will be possible to predict future damage by deer by examining the data on distribution and abundance of different deer species and the data on regional distribution of vulnerable crops and woodlands.

There is a perception that deer damage is increasing, however, there is little data to quantify the scale of impact on agricultural, forestry and conservation habitats. The 'true economic cost' of deer damage, therefore, requires further research and examination.

Muntjac were first reported at Monks Wood NNR, Cambridgeshire, in the early 1970s. By 1985, they had impacted coppice regrowth, principally of hazel, field maple and ash. Despite trials of protective measures, coppicing was suspended in 1995 because of browsing impact. Other woody vegetation had been heavily browsed and for some species abundance was affected (bramble). Among the ground flora there were effects on common and rare species. Some grasses and sedges have increased because they are avoided by deer, are more tolerant of grazing or have benefited from changes in management. Invertebrates may have been affected by changes in plant composition.

A sample of six small woodlands were used to assess the impact of nine roe deer/km2 on ground and shrub vegetation. 30 exclosures and 30 paired controls were set up with vegetation density measured at six height categories in late winter and mid-summer between 1996-1999. Vegetative cover was found to be reduced by deer browsing in winter and summer and significantly increased during the study period. Plant composition also changed during the study period. Plant structure and composition of small farm woodlands in arable ecosystems were found to be effected by roe deer populations.

The observed changes in vegetative structure and species composition from deer browsing could be beneficial to woodlands depending on the management objectives. However, if shrubby woodlands are the management objective then deer browsing can be damaging to the biodiversity of these woodlands and negatively impacting on the conservation value.

For similar projects in the future monitoring habitat impact and change in relation to deer browsing should use larger plot sizes with a central assessment area over a longer time period. This study terminated after four years of study due to the woodland beginning provide a support structure for rambling shrub species (e.g. bramble) biasing increased growth in these plots. Exclosures were also designed to allow hares to pass in, however, evidence of hare presence was low. Therefore the authors recommend an increase at the base of exclosures to 50mm to generate a more accurate picture.

Between 1974 and 1992 there were declines in bramble and several woodland forbs and an increase in grasses at Wytham Woods, perhaps due to increasing deer populations. Exclosure showed that forbs increased inside exclosures whilst decreasing in the wider wood, supporting the hypothesis that deer herbivory was responsible for the change. In contrast to exclosures under the woodland canopy, exclosures in a clearing were rapidly colonized by bramble. Solar radiation and herbivory may interact and the decline of bramble at Wytham may reflect canopy closure as well as herbivory. Faecal pellet counts indicated different habitat use by fallow and muntjac. Grasslands in proximity to the woodland accumulated more fallow deer faeces, whilst dense ancient woodland areas accumulated more muntjac faeces.

Review of the possible impacts of increased deer populations on small mammal ecology in British lowland woodlands. Impacts occur through two pathways: modification or removal of habitat and direct competition for food. Loss of woodland ground vegetation and understory species like hazel can cause decreases in small mammal populations (yellow-necked mice, dormice). Loss of early succession scrub and grassland may reduce shrews, harvest mice, field voles. In woodland rides, field voles may benefit from higher deer numbers. Bank voles could benefit from delayed canopy/understory closure. Predators that depend on rodents are likely to decrease if rodent numbers decrease.

Not based on in-depth study of all the rodents.

Wildlife managers commonly attempt to control large herbivores through hunting to meet specific management objectives, considering population density as the key source of information. The problems of censusing populations of large herbivores are reviewed and an alternative approach, employing indicators of ecological change, described, including both population and habitat features. A set of indicators, to be measured over time, are proposed: animal performance, population abundance, habitat quality and/or herbivore habitat impact. This sort of adaptive management is employed widely in France for managing roe deer.

Adaptive management based on a range of ecological indicators is likely to be more effective than using population size alone

Roe deer and red deer were investigated during controlled disturbance trials, using implanted telemetry transmitters to record heart rate and positions of the head. Heart rates and behavior were compared before, during and after various stimuli. Heart rate and activity were also continuously recorded to obtain their normal daily and yearly patterns without disturbance. From November to June the animals were more active in the daytime, whereas in late summer and early autumn they showed pronounced night time activity. In contrast, red deer showed a relative constant ratio of day to night activity. Both roe and red deer were most active during twilight, roe deer more so at dawn, red deer more at dusk. Resting heart rate of red deer was lowest in winter, and highest in May and June. Roe deer showed less pronounced seasonal differences of resting heart rate. Lunar cycles influenced activity of red deer, but not of roe deer. Both species exhibited stronger behavioral reactions (“activation”) and heart rate increases towards optical stimuli (walking persons, dogs, equestrians and hang-gliders) than to acoustic stimuli (chain saw, radio music, dog barking) with exception of gunshots, which also elicited high reactions. Both species were more often active in the morning hours and late afternoon than at noontime. Altogether the reactions of roe deer towards stimuli were short and strong, whereas red deer showed less obvious but persisting reactions.

Roe and red deer showed different strategies of compensating after being disturbed. By roe deer the length of resting bouts were shortened on days with disturbance trials, but the number of resting bouts per day increased, so that the total activity budgets for daytime as well as for 24 hours were not influenced by disturbance trials. Red deer were more active during daytime when disturbed without changing their night activity (total daily activity increased), however, they had lower resting heart rates on days with disturbance trials. Recommendations are given to minimize disturbances of deer.

Urban deer management raises challenges in relation to wider urban planning and ecological impacts. Large scale assessments of deer population density are needed to evaluate the potential impact on urban planning and resource management agencies. Using model sets of 3 different spatial scales (preserve 15–1238 ha, buffer-only 132–1335 ha, and total area 147–2322 ha) the research evaluated the influence of landscape factors on the density of surburban deer in 40 forest preserves in northeastern Illinois, USA.

Diversity of land cover is recommended to reduce deer density. In particular, reducing forest cover within housing developments can reduce deer numbers and potentially increase biodiversity within suburban areas. This could be beneficial to wider ecosystem services. Collaboration between natural resource managers and urban planners may help to facilitate this through a greater awareness of potential growth in housing developments.

The density data used in the research is subject to the inherent challenge in accurately calculating deer numbers. The data used was also a decade old and it was unknown whether the density data used was a true representation of of the minimum number of deer on the preserves.

The study examined the effects of overstorey canopy cover, coppice restoration and deer browsing on the growth and structure of 11 coppice woodlands in lowland England. Within the woodlands coppice compartments were categorised based on 1) coppicing history, 2) low and high overstorey canopy cover, and 3) deer browsing levels. Browsing damage was examined in relation to structural browsing damage and the presence of deer. Browsing and overstorey cover reduced the density of the understorey. Deer browsing damage was emphasised in compartments with low overstorey canopy cover, likely due to the richer understorey coppice re-growth.

For future coppice restoration and continuous growth post coppicing, the authors recommend active management to reduce deer browsing damage and deer populations as a whole. However, moderate levels of browsing are recognised as being potentially beneficial and playing an important role in forest dynamics. A spatial understanding of the coppice woodland in relation to neighbouring vegetation cover and access routes is also identified. This may influence the browsing patterns of the deer and impact on the coppice. A long-term and holistic approach to forest management planning is advocated.

Community involvement with deer management in suburban areas has increased. This has resulted in both challenges and opportunities for collaboration between different stakeholder groups. The paper draws on stakeholder interviews with people involved with collaborative deer management in suburban communities in New York and Massachusetts. The interviews identified the factors that influenced stakeholder capacity and capacity-developing intervention for more effective collaboration.

Recommendations for increasing community capacity for collaborative deer management are: partnerships, credibility, funding, relationships, common purpose, knowledge and leadership. In order to achieve and facilitate capacity development the following 'intervention approaches' are suggested: stakeholder involvement, education, communication, assessment, agency flexibility and planning.

The authors recognise that deer management issues and the responsive collaborative management process can evolve. However, not all issues and collaborative management groups will evolve sequentially. This makes it difficult to define a set of collaborative 'rules' that would work in every context.

This Practice Note provides information on how to identify deer species, the potential damage caused by deer, potential management approaches to help prevent damage and contact information for advice on deer management. The note is aimed primarily at those who are not familiar with deer management and who may need to consider deer management in the future due to the increasing presence of deer, particularly in lowland areas.

The note provides 3 principles to manage deer impacts, 1) the design and management of the habitat (this is particularly important for woodland habitats), 2) physical protection of vulnerable areas (e.g. fences, plastic netting, deer deterrents) and 3) humane culling of deer to maintain the population at an 'acceptable level'. A co-operative management approach between neighbours is also highlighted as being 'vital' for success in deer management.

The booklet was designed for local residents and communities about the issues related to an over-abundant white tailed deer population, including deer-vehicle collisions, disease transmission and ecological habitat. It also provides potential management options including, non-lethal options (e.g. birth control, trap and relocated, fencing and deer resistant plants) and deer population reductions methods (e.g. sharpshooting, regulated hunting and controlled hunting). It also provides details on current deer reduction programmes in Connecticut as well as facts about deer and recommendations for future deer management.

In developing management programmes it is crucial to build community support and provide residents with facts about all management options. Where land is divided under different ownership it is important to get neighbours to work together. Deer should be targeted for removal but should include stags and does. Management programmes should be undertaken annually and accurate records kept of disease transmission, roadkills and deer-vehicle accidents to evaluate the progress of management. Provide refrigerated storage and a fund to cover the cost of donating venison.

It is important to know the context of the area, who owns the land, what laws or policies may restrict hunting methods as if these are unknown it may reduce the effectiveness of the management programme.

Deer provide numerous recreational and aesthetic benefits. With increasing deer populations in suburban areas, however, incidents of conflicts with people are also growing. This training guide provides an overview of the complex issues and challenges and is aimed at anyone who is involved with suburban deer management. It outlines approaches and methods for managing and controlling deer populations. Management of suburban deer should be aimed at controlling (and reducing where necessary) deer numbers to a level that is acceptable and tolerated by the community. In order to achieve this a clear set of management goals should be defined from the outset. This will allow outcomes to be evaluated post management implementation.

The management techniques outlined within the guide include; nonlethal management (e.g. repellents, habit modification, fencing), approaches to minimize deer-vehicle collisions (e.g. warning signs, roadside reflectors), population reduction options (e.g. trap and translocate, sharpshooting) and experimental deer management (e.g. fertility controls). It is often the application of a combination of methods that can be most effective.

There remains confusion around fertility control approaches to wild deer management and despite decades of research effective antifertility programmes do not exist. Antifertility drugs are classified as experimental and therefore appropriate permits are necessary for them to be used. So far they have only been used for research projects.

In this study, we analysed the influence of climate change on the timing of roe deer births and the consequences for population demography and individual fitness. Our study provides a rare quantification of the demographic costs associated with the failure of a species to modify its phenology in response to a changing world. Given these fitness costs, the lack of response of roe deer birth dates to match the increasingly earlier onset of spring is in stark contrast with the marked phenotypic responses to climate change reported in many other mammals. We suggest that the lack of phenotypic plasticity in birth timing in roe deer is linked to its inability to track environmental cues of variation in resource availability for the timing of parturition.

Landscape models to describe and predict deer-vehicle collisions (DVCs) within the City of Edmonton, Alberta, were created. Models based on roadside characteristics revealed that DVCs occurred frequently where vegetation was both denser and more diverse and that DVCs were more likely to occur when the groomed width of roadside right-of-ways was smaller. No DVCs occurred where the width of the vegetation-free or manicured roadside buffer was greater than 40m. Landscape-based models showed that DVCs were more likely in more heterogeneous landscapes where road densities were lower and speed limits were higher, and where non-forested vegetation such as farmland was in closer proximity to larger tracts of forest.

These models can help wildlife and transportation managers to identify locations of high collision frequency for mitigation. Modifying certain landscape and roadside habitats can be an effective way to reduce deer-vehicle collisions.

The management of urban deer populations can prove challenging, in particular when using lethal controls e.g. culling. These can be perceived negatively by urban communities. The research used a questionnaire to assess management preferences of community members in per-urban Scotland. The results were analysed against three social categories, age, gender and familiarity with wildlife. The results for the survey show an overall preference to non-lethal management responses, e.g. fencing, changing human behaviour on roads, across all the social categories. Culling was supported by some respondents as a third preference management response. This paper is part of a wider research project, 'Management of roe deer in peri-urban Scotland'.

Preferred management responses should be utilised first. Culling should only be regarded as a 'subsidiary management response' in peri-urban areas.

The research was conducted using a case study area, Central Scotland Forest. Preferences may vary in different peri-urban and urban areas. A longitudinal study may highlight changes in preferences over time as tolerance levels change and community and wildlife populations change.

The research had two aims; 1) to assess the relationship between preferences for deer population size and management and associated attitudes and 2) how suburban landowner attitudes changed to deer and their management after a communication plan was introduced. Undertaken in the greater Rochester area, New York, questionnaires were sent out to 3 areas of varying deer population density before and after the communication plan was implemented. The responses showed little change in management preference although generally residents opposed lethal management methods to non-lethal methods, e.g. trap and removal, contraception research.

Managers implementing a communication plan should consider the following; 1) the duration and intensity of the debate in relation to deer management within a community, 2) which communication technique would be most effective, 3) consider potential preformed opinions prior to a survey on attitudes being conducted and factor in time for attitudes to potentially change.

The Deer Initiative hosted a two day conference in Buxton, England entitled 'The Future for Deer'. This report contains the proceedings from the conference. Topics of papers are wide ranging including, woodland biodiversity, agricultural production, urban deer, wild deer road traffic accidents, economics and standards of deer management and issues in relation to venison quality assurance and Game meat regulations.

The research aimed to identify the most effective research method to examine public perceptions of deer management. It evaluated methods including, focus groups, interviews (face-to-face, in-depth and telephone) and surveys (postal and online, including promoted via social media). Focus groups and postal surveys were identified as as providing the best data quality and for establishing people's perception, awareness and understanding. Email surveys had the poorest quality and lowest response rate. Surveys promoted via social media were not successful. Quantitative and qualitative data needs to be collected to gain a more holistic understanding of the perceptions.

The potential of social media to obtain information and communicate with younger people could be a potential useful approach, however, this requires further examination as an approach. Training in the use of social media may be required. Visitor perceptions should also be included within research on wild deer perceptions as deer can be an important factor in visitor experience to Scotland.

Roe deer is the most abundant cervid in Europe. Due to the increasing economic, cultural and ecological importance further research programmes are needed to understand the sustainable use of this species. Using game management data the research investigated the changes in roe deer population and harvest across Europe using game management information. Actual population size is estimated to be 1.5 times larger than official data. The population density and hunting bag has increased across Europe.

The only population decline was seen in south-eastern Europe which, the authors suggest, could have been a response to the recent political and socio-economic changes in the area. Further research could be done to explore the more socio-economic and cultural factors that influence roe deer population.

The study evaluated the acceptability of lethal and non-lethal deer management methods in urban areas. Urban deer management in particular highlights the social, cultural and political processes that are part of a wider context in which deer management takes place. Questionnaires were sent to 192 public and private wildlife management, conservation and agricultural agencies and organisations. The results were then compared to data from a broader survey of public attitudes towards wildlife damage management and policy.

Whilst it was recognised that some stakeholder groups (e.g. animal rights organisations) did not believe lethal methods were an acceptable form of deer management, some public stakeholders were willing to accept these methods if they have been determined by wildlife management agencies to be the most feasible. Alongside the direct management of deer the research also argues for greater education and increased public participation and understanding to enhance credibility of wildlife agencies.

To convert pellet density to deer density there is a need for reliable data on the rate of faecal pellet disappearance. The study monitored the disappearance of muntjac and roe deer pellet groups in four growth stages of a pine forest in lowland England over a 15 month period. Time to disappearance of the pellet groups (days) of both species significantly differed between habitats and months; it was shorter in late summer to early autumn and in habitats with more ground vegetation. Muntjac pellet groups disappeared more quickly than roe deer pellet groups. It is the time of the standing-crop pellet-group counts and the disappearance rate of pellet groups deposited in different months and habitats that determine the appropriate method for conversion of pellet-group density to deer density.

One hundred and one plant species germinated from faecal pellet material, 85 of which were among the 247 vascular plant species recorded in the forest. However, three species comprised 56% of the seedlings recorded. Of the species recorded in faecal samples, 36% had no recognised dispersal mechanism, while very few (7%) were adapted to endozoochorous dispersal (fleshy fruit or nut). The number of species dispersed by the herbivores was ranked Cervus elaphus and Dama dama (96, red and fallow deer) > Capreolus capreolus (40, roe deer) > Muntiacus reevesi (31 muntjac).

Information on the impacts of deer in relation to densities of deer in lowland environments in Britain. Population densities and impacts of deer on advance regeneration were assessed. Deer densities were higher on sites with drier and more fertile soils. The log seedling density was negatively correlated with deer density, relative use of woodland vs adjacent fields and deer species (expressed as a proportion of 'larger' species, mainly Fallow deer Dama dama). Seedling density declined most sharply at relatively low deer densities, indicating that advanced regeneration is sensitive to deer presence. The results indicate that regeneration is unlikely to be adequate at densities above 14 deer km-2

Regeneration in lowland woodlands is unlikely to be adequate at densities above 14 deer km-2. Deer densities higher on drier and more fertile sites.

15 sites assessed, findings likely to be robust.

Effective stakeholder collaboration at a community level in wildlife management remains a challenge. This research proposes the use of the ‘Islip Deer Initiative’ (IDI) as one approach to help design a stakeholder involvement strategy. The design of the IDI is based on a four-step procedure. This involved, 1) understanding the local context, 2) defining the objectives for stakeholder involvement, 3) selecting an overarching stakeholder involvement approach, and 4) designing context-specific stakeholder involvement strategies. The context for this research was the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation to work as a partnership with three other parties in order to manage white-tailed deer cooperatively.

Residents in the areas of Islip occupied by deer were surveyed to obtain information to help design specific stakeholder involvement strategies. There was a strong interest by many of the residents to input into local deer management decisions. Stakeholder involvement within a deer management decision process should, utilise scientific information, show equality of all stakeholders and views, good communication is key, and be time and cost-effective.

The focus of the research was on the 'management of people-deer interactions' within peri-urban areas of Scotland. This included evaluating the perception of local communities regarding the value and challenges/impacts of deer populations. Anthropogenic causes were associated with deer challenges with preferred management responses being changes in human behaviour, e.g. reduced speed limits before direct management of the deer population such as fencing or 'scarers'. There was, however, a perception that peri-urban communities are not overly impacted by deer. Consequently there was a level of skepticism regarding the need for management of deer populations in these areas.

A Decision Support Framework was developed to assist stakeholders to develop new approaches to deer management in urban areas. This includes the development of customised management partnerships that respond to local contexts and needs.

The report does not highlight specific limitations of the research but does list a number of future research recommendations, including piloting the Decision Support Framework, examining the similarities and differences within urban, peri-urban and rural environments in relation to value of deer and ecology of deer.

A review of published and unpublished reports related to wild ungulates in urban areas of Europe. The chapter presents discussion on the potential human-ungulate conflicts (e.g. vehicle collisions, damage to market gardens, disease transmission, welfare issues), management approaches (e.g. lethal, nonlethal and costs of control) and perception of management by local communities and wider public.

To be completed

The research evaluated the responses of deer biologists at state conservation agencies in relation to urban and suburban deer management in 41 states in the USA where deer populations have been increasing. These opinions were compared to those expressed in public opinion surveys. The survey asked questions in relation to current deer management techniques being used, what techniques have been used in the past and which techniques were felt to be the most effective in controlling deer populations. Despite an agreement between biologists and public bodies on the reasons for deer management the preference for management approaches and tools can vary greatly.

The authors recommend that state agencies should survey constituents beyond questions of acceptability of management techniques. Surveys should also consider the beliefs and concerns about deer management.

The increasing prevalence of deer within the Central Belt of Scotland are producing a different perception of deer than popularly associated with the Scottish Highlands. This social and ecological research aimed to examine i) if deer presence was being felt by local communities in the Central Scotland and the benefits this presence may bring, ii) deer density figures within this area and whether this correlates with peoples' experience of deer presence.

The development of green corridors in urban areas to improve connectivity between habitat areas, e.g. Integrated Habitat Networks (SNH), Woodlands In And Around Towns (Forestry Commission), Living Waters (Froglife) and the importance of bings (Scottish term for derelict coal slag heaps) and brownfield sites.

This was the first study of its kind in Scotland. If population numbers were to increase substantially this may bring wider impacts e.g. deer vehicle collisions and damage to gardens and parks. In this study, it was not yet perceived as a problem.

An introduction to the presentations given during the Urban Deer Awareness Day, 2014, filmed by 'RoeStalker'. Talks included issues related to changes in deer population densities in urban areas, disease transmission, contraceptive methods, undertaking hunting management in urban areas and public perceptions of deer in urban areas. Video time is 15 minutes. There are full videos of some of the presentations included in this video uploaded by the same person. To access these click on the 'RoeStalker' profile underneath the video and search through the uploaded videos.

It is important to be aware of public perceptions of deer management, in particular lethal management, and adapt how methods may be undertaken to reduce negative perceptions, e.g. not shooting near pathways, timing of the shoot when people are not around, wearing discreet clothing. For disease transmission it is important for managers to know how to identify diseases. Two diseases that are not yet in the UK but are at high risk of entering are chronic wasting disease and epizootic hemorrhagic disease. Contraception as a management method was not regarded as being effective.

This edited publication of conference proceedings provides a number of articles in relation to the management of urban wild deer with particular focuses on, the human dimension of urban wild deer management, examples of urban deer management from the USA, management methods and management plans. The management of urban deer populations has met with criticism due to the 'safety, cost, effectiveness and efficiency' of methods and programmes adopted. The criticism has largely been in relation to the 'traditional' methods of hunting and more 'experimental' methods of birth control. Urban deer management could also involve a larger number of stakeholders with varying, and at times contradicting, views.

Management method examples include lethal and non-lethal methods, trap and relocation, sharpshooting and contraceptive methods. There are also papers on communication strategies to help support management methods and leadership in deer management.

The paper reviews different approaches that have been taken to change the interactions between people and large herbivores. These approaches encourage positive interactions through increased benefits derived from large herbivores to individuals, communities and societies. The author argues that within a developing country context, where human populations are increasing, this is the primary way that will allow for the greater survival of large herbivores outwith those areas set aside for their protection. In developed countries an opposite trend is identified to occur due to the migration of people to cities causing a decline in rural populations. Here wildlife habitat may increase resulting in greater prevalence of conflict between large herbivores and humans, e.g. in peri-urban environments. This will result in further changes in public attitude to one that is more negative, seeing large herbivores as a threat, posing further challenges for wildlife conservation.