The report reviews the limitations of data that has been collected in relation to culled deer. Information on the traceability of of carcasses from 'hill to plate' could help to inform the sustainable management of wild deer. This includes data collected by Deer Commission for Scotland (DCS) on cull returns, authorisation returns and venison dealer records. The extent of links between the different data sets are discussed. Overall it was found that there is the potential that the majority of carcasses killed under authorisation is submitted to DCS three times through cull returns, authorisation returns and venison dealer records.

Data should ideally be collected on individual carcasses and then analysed at the population or deer management unit scale.

The report examined livestock declines in relation to hill farming, changes in management associated with these declines and impacts of these changes on natural heritage and rural communities. Data was gathered from three case study areas, South Skye, West Borders and North Highlands with participative workshops carried out in each area. The report discusses the outcomes of these workshops and the implications of an identified decline in hill farming and crofting. Specifically in relation to deer, changes in the numbers and distribution of deer and any future management plans are likely to be key factors that will effect future livestock declines and the impact this will have on natural heritage.

This study uses a multi-attribute choice experimental approach to quantify the various characteristics of the talking experience to determine the value that amateur stalkers attach to the stag numbers, the landscape and other attributes. Unlike previous applications of stated preference, a large proportion (one-third) of a full factorial design is used to present stalkers with different alternative stalking packages within a postal survey. High animal quality (weight, maturity and trophy) was valued highest, followed by an availability of alternative game species. There is potential for providers to extract a premium for mixed stalking. Commercial timber operations and quality stalking are not easily compatible, but the prospect of mixed stalking is relevant given the increasing pressure from conservationists for the re-establishment of native woodland. Where good quality animals are available, British stalkers and repeat visitors clearly prefer traditional open hill red deer stalking. Sporting estates could introduce their clients to woodland stalking as part of a mixed package. These results indicate a way forward that could be agreeable to both deer managers and conservationists.

The report outlines the means of estimating the numbers of deer shot that do not go through game dealers and are instead eaten at home or distributed to friends (known as domestic consumption). If deer carcasses are sold it is required by law that it is recorded through a game keeper. There are two methods that can be used to estimate domestic consumption, 1) comparison of cull returns with dealer records and 2) surveys of stalkers. Data is provided to compare cull and venison dealer data from the last 10 years, with 16% of carcasses consumed domestically. The limitations of this method are discussed (see also 'A report on limitations of data currently collected' by the same author). A survey of stalkers indicated a higher domestic consumption percentage, again the limitations of this approach is discussed.

The study examined the prevalence of Anaplasma phagocytophilum (bacterium) in four deer species, fallow, roe, red and sika, in the New Forest. Anaplasma phagocytophilum is transmitted via ticks and can cause infectious diseases in humans, horses and other companion animals. Deer are known hosts however, the distribution among different deer populations within the same, or overlapping, geographical area has been unexplored. The results identify 29% of deer tested positively, with fallow deer having significantly lower prevalence than the other three species. These results are analysed in relation to habitat use and the influence this has on infection levels between the different deer species. Deer could be an indicator species of the localised infection pressure and risk to domestic animals and humans.

Rising red deer population constitute an environmental problem related both to damages to the ecological value of moorland and to costs imposed on other land users, typically forest owners and farmers. Yet management actions to curtail the red deer population are largely in the hands of private estates, who may have little incentive to reduce deer numbers because of the influence of deer numbers on capital values. This paper describes the red deer problem, then characterizes it as an externality over which possible bargains could be struck. The reasons for the lack of such bargains in practice are linked to availability of government intervention and the possible large transaction costs of bargaining; whilst co-operative, multi-party management seems also to have become established.

Although the management actions of the Red Deer Management Groups do not necessarily address the public good externalities involved in excessive deer numbers, the inclusion of nature conservation organisations within Deer Management Groups is a step in the right direction.

Old paper so the structures of deer management may have changed since publication.

The report provides an overview of reasons behind ungulate presence in urban areas and the consequences of overabundance in urban areas. Urban areas provide good habitat and protection from hunters and other predators increasing deer populations in these areas. Although they bring significant benefits there are also increasing conflicts between deer and humans. Challenges include, the overlapping political boundaries and responsibilities and wide ranging public opinion on appropriate management methods. A number of management methods are discussed including conflict reduction methods (e.g. fencing, repellents, vehicle collision mitigation), population reduction (e.g. capture and relocate, sharpshooting, predator reintroduction), fertility control and administrative options.

The focus of management strategies should be more on the reduction of conflicts between deer and people and the management of the deer population at 'an acceptable level' rather than the complete elimination of the conflict or deer herd. This may involve short-term and long-term plans alongside the incorporation of multiple stakeholders.

Diversity of opinions can be challenging for deer management when involving collaboration with the wider public. There needs to be appropriate methods used. Legislation, policy and procedures can also be challenging to deer management, in particular when needing to identify who is responsible, accountable and has the appropriate authority to plan, coordinate and implement deer management plans.

Using both qualitative and quantitative data analysis this paper investigates the potential role of market incentives to increase venison production as a mechanism to resolve conflicts over wild red deer management in the Scottish Highlands. Results suggest the approach is unlikely to be effective because investments in venison production would bring conflict with more important non-pecuniary objectives of landownership such as ‘sporting quality’ and ‘exclusivity’. At a broader level caution should be urged when considering the deployment of economic instruments to resolve contemporary conservation conflicts where profit maximisation is not the dominant objective and/or where the target group is extremely wealthy.

The paper explores the potential of community-based collaboration and decision-making within wildlife management. It recognises the potential benefits and challenges associated with community-based collaboration, in particular identifying that collaboration between community stakeholders and wildlife managers can result in improved identification of human-wildlife interactions and wildlife-related impacts on communities. The paper draws on research undertaken with 10 veteran white-tailed deer managers from the USA.

To go beyond just having stakeholder input to a more collaborative relationship between organisations and community stakeholders requires the 'appropriate sharing of responsibility' between the two. Increasing local capacity to be involved with wildlife management is recognised as an important role of wildlife management agencies. It is felt that such an opportunity to increase collaboration and the capacity for collaboration can result in a long lasting and positive influence on both the communities involved and wildlife management.

Not all wildlife management issues can addressed at the community level. Therefore, management organisations will be required to prioritise those that can involve other stakeholders effectively and assess the risks that may be associated by not engaging with communities.

This is the project website for 'Collaborative Frameworks in Land Management: A Case Study on Integrated Deer Management'. The website includes links to webpages with detailed information about different aspects of the project as well as supporting documents. The overall aim of the research was to produce a framework for the development of effective, informed, inclusive, collaborative and sustainable management of rural resources in Britain. Wild deer were used as a case study.

A follow-on project will be undertaken to examine the potential of increasing the capacity of conservation agencies to incorporate the participatory methods utilised within the research in their own management practices.

The guide brings together insights and experiences of community-based collaborative work carried out by wildlife managers from the northeast region of the USA in relation to deer management. The guide does not aim to be a prescriptive set of guidelines but rather provide broad insights and cases of success that could be adapted by other deer managers wishing to undertake community-based collaboration. The approach to deer management is to see the deer as a resource and not a pest.

The Guide presents five factors that enable community-based practices; adequate knowledge, essential working relationships, effective local leadership, sufficient credibility, and commitment to a common purpose. To achieve these five facilitating factors were also identified; stakeholder involvement, education and learning, informative communication, wildlife agency flexibility and assessment.

Some communities, although wishing to collaborate on decision-making, do not want to take responsibility for the implementation of the management and may resist in this aspect. Land managers may need to be aware of this.

The study is based on community-based collaborative deer management in suburban areas of New York and Massachusetts. The research examined the evolution of deer management issues, the success of collaborative management and what influenced the success of collaborative management. The study identifies that specific factors that can enhance the success of collaborative management may need to be used at different stages as management continues.

The study identifies 7 factors to help designing intervention strategies including, identifying the community environment (past and present), identifying who will be affected, how far the issue has evolved, identify criteria to assess the success of the decision-making process, determine the community social dynamics, identify where capacity needs enhancing and design intervention strategies that target enhancing capacity.

More work could be conducted to verify and expand the number of factors identified that could help to enhance the collaborative decision-making process. Furthermore the potential of facilitation of collaborative engagement in relation to the factors identified is needed to evaluate their effectiveness.

The paper explores the potential of a community-based collaboration project developed between a village in Japan and a local non-governmental organisation. The project was in response to the increasing Sika deer population (which was resulting in human-wildlife conflicts) and a declining hunter population. The aim of the community-based collaboration project was to make economic contributions to the local economy as well as managing the high Sika deer numbers. The means of doing this was to attract visitor hunters and develop a hunter education programme.

The community-based programme did provide wider economic benefits through income generation and employment for some local residents. The educational programmes included also helped to recruit younger hunters. The authors argue that a combination of recreational hunting and hunter education in rural areas can promote more community-based wildlife management in high population density societies where hunting participation is declining.

The deer population levels at the end of the study were at a desirable level. Long-term monitoring of the deer population is needed to assess whether this system has longevity in achieving a balanced target deer population.

This paper compared two methods of estimating deer abundance from dung: Faecal Accumulation Rate (FAR) and Faecal Standing Crop (FSC). Although FAR is more time consuming, the results produced have less potential for bias and should be used rather than FSC.

Use Faecal Accumulation Rate (FAR) rather than Faecal Standing Crop (FSC) to estimate deer densities

The research compared four population management methods used in the city of Bloominton, Minnesota. The methods used to reduce the deer population were, 1) controlled hunts in large parks, 2) opportunistic hunting by conservation officers, 3) sharpshooting over bait by park rangers, and 4) sharpshooting over bait by police officers on smaller public land. Collectively the four methods reduced the winter deer density by 46% and deer-vehicle collisions by 30%. The costs of management methods used should be balanced against the economic benefits produced including vehicle repair costs, improved road and public safety and reduced costs in deer damage to vegetation.

Sharpshooting over bait was deemed to be the most adaptable of the methods used and it was argued that this method could be used in many urban situations.

The paper explores the barriers to collaboration in wild deer management in the Scottish Highlands. It highlights, in particular, the potential of recreation hunting to be incorporated within the government's strategy to contain the increasing deer population. Coming from the perspective of landowners, the paper utilises a qualitative and quantitative analysis which highlights the barriers to shooting for conservation. These include, personal preference and the tradition of hunting, antipathy to conservationists and the perception of land stewardship.

The paper calls for greater collaboration between conservationists and landowners to create a 'positive context' to allow more joint initiatives and activities to manage wild deer. The expansion of commercial hunting is the 'best practical approach' to help resolve the current conflict over wild deer.

This paper reviews the contribution made by wildlife to the rural economy and to British society more widely. Traditional activities such as deer stalking remain an important source of wealth and employment, but their overall contribution is declining relative to non-consumptive uses such as wildlife tourism. Although much of the literature focuses on the negative impacts of mammals on commercial activities such as agriculture and forestry, these impacts are relatively insignificant in economic terms at both regional and national levels. Wild meat provides a niche in the contemporary food market, but, although demand is growing, growth is handicapped by a fragmented supply chain and lack of marketing.

The contribution made by wild mammals to the rural economy appears small, even in relatively remote regions, but this may partly reflect gaps in the literature regarding their contribution via less formal markets, hobby activities, and in supporting ecosystem equilibrium.

The report provides information on current deer populations for the different species found in the UK. The benefits and challenges of managing wild deer, the economic costs and potential impacts on human populations (e.g. deer-vehicle collisions, disease) and other habitats are outlined. The main proposals from the report are categorised around 5 broad topic areas, 1) sources of advice on deer (including a national integrated system for providing advice, cooperative management and Deer Management Groups), 2) development of alternative methods for resolving deer problems (including non-lethal measures and design), 3) disease and animal welfare (including TB testing, carcass examination training, discourage supplementary feeding of wild deer to discourage artificially high concentrations), 4) legislation issues (including revising current deer legislation, revising close seasons for individual deer species) and 5) training for stalkers (including encouraging training and consolidate what is already available).

An evaluation of the issues, effects and costs by wild deer on agricultural land and forestry. Damage to agricultural fields are largely confined to those close to woodland. Damage is also likely to be 'patchy' and within a particular area. Damage can vary throughout the year and will impact on the severity of economic loss, e.g. grazing damage prior to harvest. Deer damage was perceived to be less than rabbits and Greylag geese by farmers. There are wider economic costs in relation to deer damage and deer management methods in forestry areas, e.g. fencing costs.

European policies for removing farmland from production and replacing them with woodland may lead to an increase in deer damage on farmland.

There has not been a Scottish-based study that has explored the direct effect of deer damage on agricultural crops. There are also potential impacts for pastoral farming, e.g. reduction in spring grass and reduced milk production. More data is needed on the economic costs of damage to forestry, in particular in relation to different tree species.

A survey conducted in 1998 by the Highways Agency identified the number of road traffic accidents involved deer in the UK was 20,000 to 42,000 per annum, with around 20% these accidents occurring in Scotland. This report reviews the different measures available to reduce the frequency and severity of such road traffic accidents. These were evaluated against the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of the methods and in relation to existing roads and new road schemes and associated traffic volume. The measures were categorised as 1) preventing (or controlling) crossing, e.g. highway fencing, roadside warning reflectors, reduction in deer oppulation densidt; 2) increasing driver awareness, e.g. driver warning systems including fixed signage, speed responsive signage; and 3) provision of safer crossing places, e.g. dedicated overpasses or underpasses, modifying existing structures, creation of designated 'cross-walks' across road carriageways. Deer-vehicle collisions have often been studied as being an animal welfare issue. The authors argue that there is also additional economic costs, e.g. human injury and vehicle damage. Consequently, an allocated annual budget at national (trunk roads) and regional (non-trunk roads) that targets the reduction of deer-vehicle collisions (and associated costs) is needed.

A general principle from reviewing all the methods was the need for mitigation methods to focus primarily on channeling deer towards safer crossing points rather than preventing crossing altogether. Preventing crossing may result in deer forcing routes through and potentially becoming trapped within the carriageways. Prevention to cross may also cause fragmentation and/or isolation of deer populations and other large wildlife species.

Data on deer-vehicle collisions and potential mitigation measures were gathered from published and unpublished reports. Some of these were contradictory to the effectiveness of reducing deer numbers.

The aim of the research was to analyse the public perceptions of wild deer management issues, hunting effectiveness and changes in perception before and after a deer hunt. These relative changes in perception were used as an indicator of the overall 'cultural carrying capacity' to shotgun-archery deer hunting. Three surveys were carried out across a seven year period with all residents of a community in Groton, Connecticut. Overall hunting was perceived to reduce the deer population, deer damage to landscaped areas and spread of disease, e.g. Lyme disease. The hunt was perceived to be conducted as 'good to excellent' with some residents who initially did not support hunting would do so in the future.

Hunting as a management tool is more likely to be perceived as beneficial to and supported by a community if it is 'fast, safe and maximizes harvest opportunities'. All areas that may be impacted by the deer population should be targeted in order to maximize a hunts success and satisfaction from the local community. The authors recommend that to help evaluate the hunt success the key concerns about a high deer population in a community should be documented before and after hunts.

The authors identify the difficulty of agreeing an 'optimum' deer population level based on multiple stakeholder views. This can influence the use of cultural carrying capacity as a guideline for managing deer in residential areas. The authors argue that there have not been studies that have identified the point at which the cultural carrying capacity for deer has been achieved within a community.

The strategy sets out the key commitments for managing the National Forest Estate by Forest Enterprise Scotland (agency of Forestry Commission Scotland). The strategy outlines the approaches for the management plan. These approaches aim to align with the WDNA challenges. The National Forest Estate is located in lowland, upland, rural and urban areas of Scotland and the plan will be reflective of these different areas.

The strategy includes the need for working collaboratively with different stakeholders and organisations, e.g. Lowland Deer Network Scotland, Association of Deer Management Groups. Training programmes, public awareness and quality assurance standards are also highlighted as key management approaches.

An overview of the challenges related to overabundant white-tailed deer populations in suburban areas. The challenges raised are largely related to the potential impacts on people within these areas as well as highlighting the decline in deer herd health as habitat becomes scarce or degraded within the suburban areas. The paper also outlines potential obstacles associated with suburban deer population control and potential management methods that could be utilised including, hunting, sharpshooting, trap and translocate, trap and euthanasia, fencing, fertility controls, predator reintroduction, neighbour cooperation and localised options for small areas of land e.g gardens.

Local contexts must be considered when managing deer populations and the methods/approaches used. A combination of different management methods is likely to be more effective than the use of one method. The local community should be involved with deer management with clear, measurable long-term goals outlined from the outset, e.g. reduced reports of deer-vehicle collisions. This will allow for better evaluation of the management methods used.

The National Deer Collisions Project is recording information on deer collisions and incidents. Concerns over this issue go beyond deer welfare and population size and should include the costs to the wider economy (human health and vehicles damage). Solutions proposed to reduce collisions are three-ways: provide safer crossing points for deer (e.g. overpasses), increase drivers awareness, preventing or controlling crossing.

The primary objective of the Deer Vehicle Collisions (DVC) in Scotland 2008-11 Monitoring Project has been to re-establish the DVC database built up during 2003 to 2005. The DVC Scotland Database now overall includes more than 12,500 DVC records for the ten year period 2001 to 2010. Includes all trunk road, and the SSPCA live deer injured in collision report. Mapping is improved and records are available in GIS, for better assessment. Highest frequency of collisions are on parts of the A9, A835, A85, A90, M80, A1. The peak is in May-June, where 60% of collisions on motorways occur and 35% of collisions on A roads occur. There is an average of 7000 DVCs annually in Scotland, with 65-70 human injury per year. The economic cost is £75,000 per incident with human injury, leading to an annual cost of £4.9 million.

The two principal data sets which provide reliable information are : 1) deer collision reports and carcass uplift records ; and 2) information on requests to attend to live deer injured in traffic collisions handled by the SSPCA, and similar call-outs attended by Forestry Commission rangers and others.

The presence of deer in urban areas is raising challenges for deer managers to control the population at a sustainable level whilst also considering public safety. The prevalence of deer in urban areas although management plans are in place the potential impact on traffic safety has not been fully explored. Conducted in Iowa, USA within three selected urban deer management zones, the research explored the relationship between deer-vehicle collisions, deer density and land use. The research utilised secondary data on deer population and deer-vehicle collision and deer carcass removals.

Adjacent land-use can be a predictive variable in relation to the frequency of deer-vehicle collisions and resulting injury outcomes. Roadway and non-roadway factors could be used to identify locations on roadways that are likely to significantly impact deer species and safety, and mitigating measure put in place.

A key limitation identified by the authors is the lack of accuracy and consistency in reporting deer carcass removal and deer-vehicle crashes.

To be completed

The research focused on the following sectors in which deer may contribute a value, whether negative (cost) or positive (benefit): road traffic accidents, agriculture, forestry and plantation woodlands, nature conservation, animal and human health, recreation and tourism, poaching and non-use values. The work also sought to highlight gaps in existing knowledge and make predictions of the possible future impacts if deer populations continue to increase. The approach was to quantify the costs and benefits (impacts) of deer in these different sectors, and where possible and relevant, express them explicitly as functions of deer population density. It enabled future estimates of the economic impact of deer to be made in line with current population trends and the financial implications of changing deer populations to be considered in the development of deer management strategies. Priorities for the research and management of deer for the future are also identified.

The study evaluated the costs, labour involved and effectiveness of different methods to reduce deer numbers in an urban environment. The study was conducted in one site, the University of Wisconsin Arboretum. The methods evaluated were; dart-administered immobilizing drugs, Clover traps, drive nets, rocket nets, shooting over bait and driving deer out of fenced areas.

The most efficient method from the study was shooting deer over bait. This was also regarded as being the most acceptable lethal control method to the public in comparison to controlled hunts.

Multiple removal methods were conducted simultaneously. This may have influenced the effectiveness of different methods and to an extent biased the results.

The study examined the behavioural responses (flight, alarm, movement of head and no reaction) of fallow deer from continuous exposure to light reflections from WEGU reflectors in the Gribskov forest. The experimental design of the study eliminated other noises usually associated with light reflectors (vehicle noise, light) and deer were exposed to light reflections at predetermined time intervals. The study highlighted variability of behavioural responses across nights. The fallow deer showed increasing indifference to the reflections which the authors explain to be an habituation to the stimulus.

The authors argue that reflectors are an unreliable method to reduce deer-vehicle collisions due to the habituation of deer to the reflectors alongside technical limitations (e.g. limited angle and low light intensity).

The study explored the potential disturbance impact on wild deer diet composition from human recreational activities. The study was undertaken in the Scottish Highlands in spring (when recreational activity is high) and winter (when recreation activity is lower). Faecal samples were analysed in three habitat types, grassland, heather moorland and woodland with sites chosen close to a track (more disturbed) and at a distance from the track (less disturbed). In disturbed grass and woodland sites in spring, faecal evidence identifies a lower grassy diet and higher woody diet, This may highlight a wider behavioural response of a need for greater vigilance in exposed grassland to seek cover. In contrast, faecal evidence from all disturbed sites in winter indicated a more grassy diet with less heather than faeces from less-disturbed sites. This may highlight the seasonal decline in recreation and increase in hunting which would reverse the disturbance levels as hunting is not normally carried out in areas used for public recreation.

Reducing disturbance of deer in open grassland may bring nutritional benefits for deer.

The research examined external variables e.g. ecological dynamics, payoff structures, and the influence they had on cooperative behaviour in red deer management. Cooperation at the landscape level is likely to be influenced by the management objectives, e.g. sporting, biodiversity management, and the dynamics of the resource. This results in often complex scenarios that may help to drive cooperative behaviour.

Mechanisms for cooperation and cooperative behaviours are complex and the opportunities (and associated benefits) for cooperation will depend on the management objectives and dynamics of the resource.

Further work could explore the interactions between landowners with different interests and how this may affect the dynamics and potential for cooperation within deer management.

The paper argues for deer to be managed as a common property resource, in particular through more collaborative means such as Deer Management Groups. The habitat of the deer has been degraded over centuries, however, the use of scientific models, though important, only reduce the environmental uncertainty when exploring the relationship between grazing quality and deer population dynamics.

For the full potential of scientific models to be realised and utilised in deer management all landowners need to be involved and actively regarding deer as a common property resource.

Drawing on an example from the Western Highlands of Scotland the authors outline that the barrier to deer being managed as a common property resource are the incentives to behave strategically. Varying cull targets for estates may prove difficult to negotiate between and to find solutions. Likewise, negotiations between different values and interests between different decision makers within the deer management groups is needed.

Lyme borreliosis (LB) is the most common arthropod-borne disease of humans in the Northern hemisphere. The study aimed to identify the environmental factors influencing Ixodes ricinus nymph abundance and infection prevalence in questing nymphs using a large-scale study conducted across Scotland.The study was conducted at 25 sites, with ticks, host dung and vegetation surveyed alongside climatic variables from each site. A total of 2397 10m2 transect surveys were conducted and 13 250 nymphs counted. The average infection prevalence was 5.6% (range 0.8–13.9%). More questing nymphs and higher incidence of infection were found in areas with higher deer abundance and in mixed/deciduous compared to coniferous forests. Weaker correlations were seen with season, altitude, rainfall and ground vegetation. No correlation was found between nymph abundance and infection prevalence within the ranges encountered.

The authors identify a need for understanding the environmental conditions associated with tick abundance and pathogen prevalence. This may help to reduce the risk of exposure and predict future pathogen prevalence and distributions under environmental changes.

Four methods of deer counting have been compared (ground, infrared, helicopter, dung counting). Additional data from digital camera images of groups have also been used to assess accuracy of visual counts. Ground and helicopter counts methods had the lowest coefficient of variations. In terms of cost-effectiveness, helicopter counts is the least-labour intensive, with costs for the other methods depending on the availability of existing man-power. Overall, helicopter counts is most likely to minimise errors whilst maximising cost-effectiveness. Accuracy can be improved by the use of digital photography for counting larger deer groups. Estimates are likely to be improved further by increasing the frequency of counts and using the same methods, counters and routes for repeat counts.

Helicopters are the quickest and least labour-intensive. The relative costs of helicopter vs. ground or dung counts will vary, depending on both the distance helicopters have to travel to the count area, and the availability of labour as an existing overhead to the deer manager. Further accuracy can be added to helicopter counts by the use of digital photography for counting larger deer groups.

This report looks at the factors that deter or delay individuals from entering into deer farming in Scotland. The initial sections provide an introduction to the current state of deer farming in Scotland. It is followed by a description of the 2 phase questionnaire and interview approach adopted in the research. The results from each phase are presented, with 9 barriers identified during the interviews: finance, practicalities, community information, stock, marketing, politics, epidemiology and processing. Action points to be adopted by the deer farming industry to ensure a sustainable future are: production of a finance guide; upfront information on practicalities of deer farming; maintenance of a deer farming community; establishment of an online information portal; access to breeding stock; continued interactions in politics; continued marketing of venison; production of epidemiology guides; investment in processing.

The study examined the prevalence of infection of the bacterial species Ehrlichia phagocytophila within 112 culled roe deer collected from 9 sites across the UK. Samples of blood, spleen and legs were taken and analysed. Number of ticks found corresponded positively to the percentage of samples that tested positive for Ehrlichia phagocytophila from all sampling sites. Ixodes ricinus nymphs were also collected from vegetation at one site to test for infection of Ehrlichia phagocytophila. Of 135 nymphs collected 5% were infected. The results emphasised roe deer ad a key mammalian reservoir of Ehrlichia phagocytophila.

The research was conducted in Fontenelle Forest, a 16.5km2 'serene natural area' surrounded by developed landscapes and residential areas. A deer management programme was established through public engagement. Deer populations were harvested with deer density reducing from 27 deer/km2 in 1995 to 15 deer/km2. Native plant habitats were heavily browsed during 1995 and under controlled hunting deer densities were reduced and signs of recovery were then seen for these habitats.

Although deer densities and impacts were reduced in areas where high harvests were conducted in neighbouring areas where hunter access was limited have not seen the same results. For long-term, cooperative management in maintaining deer population levels the following factors were needed; collaboration, communication, leadership, research-based management, adaptive management, persistence and resources.

The impact of two roe deer populations on farmland and other arable crops in relation to other 'natural' habitats were assessed between April 1983 and March 1985 in southern Hampshire. The results identified that the use of crops by roe deer was highly seasonal but even during periods of peak use root crops and cereal fields rarely supported more than 25% of the population. Woodland habitat remained important throughout the year, only between the periods of March-April and October-November did the use fall below 40% of overall habitat use. Despite extensive use of pasture habitat between March and May the analysis of habitat preference does not indicate a positive selection for open agricultural land. Generally, woodland habitats were positively preferred throughout the year. Damage to cereal crops was analysed and results outlined. Damage was largely restricted to March, April and May which left time for recovery. There was no evidence of significant loss of yield at harvest due to roe damage. Analysis of data is compared with evidence from larger agricultural areas in Eastern Europe.

The paper explores the factors that influence heat exchanges of grazing animals in outdoor environments. The need for shelter from trees is also examined in relation to the ecology of grazing animals to tolerate heat losses. Red deer are identified as being more susceptible to colder temperatures during winter due to their 'limited energy reserves'.

An understanding of the varied ways that different animal species utilise shelter trees to modify heat exchanges could help to inform management strategies that incorporate shelter plantings. This could be particularly valuable for foresters and livestock farmers.

Gross margin figures associated with game hunting activity in nine European mountainous case study areas are calculated. It includes red and roe deer. Information about local game population and their management were collected by means of a tructured questionnaire completed by the managers in charge of game species in the case study areas. Results show that in most of the cases, gross margins per hectare are negative, indicating that in these instances, the current market apparently does not justify maintaining hunting in some European mountain systems. Although more sampling efforts should be done to confirm findings at a wider scale, the analysis reinforces the idea that other social factors, such as cultural heritage or self-consumption associated with hunting, may be crucial to wholly understand hunting in mountain systems

Non-market values related to hunting need to be estimated to better explain society priorities and therefore to efficiently guide future conservation, management, and policies in marginal and least favored mountain systems.

There are conflicts between private-sector stakeholders responsible for deer management and private landowners who are experiencing the consequences of high deer numbers including economic and conservation damage. Barriers are a consequence and likely to exist when ecological resources such as deer, result in unequal distribution of benefits and costs among the different stakeholders involved.

In order to overcome the barriers to collaboration there is a need to understand the how different collaborative approaches are viewed and promoted. Using a mixed methods approach can help to identify the different preferences and insights into motivations and behaviours underlying these preferences.

At high densities, deer populations may have adverse effects upon and within their environment. This review we explores published and unpublished information to derive density thresholds for deer species in relation to impacts upon agriculture, forestry, conservation habitats, road traffic, and human and livestock health in the UK. Impact levels are affected by many factors other than absolute density. Gives stats on road traffic accidents. We therefore seek to establish the range of densities within which negative impacts might start to occur and which should trigger objective monitoring of actual impacts. Concludes that deer density alone is unlikely to be a good predictor of impact, and suggest that long-term management should be based on assessment both of actual impacts and apparent density of deer.

Impact levels vary considerably with habitat. Management needs to consider local circumstances, and setting an arbitrary threshold for population size is unlikely to be helpful.

This research explored the impacts of deer on lowland areas in the UK, with a particular focus on agriculture, forestry and conservation habitats. Damage done by deer can vary depending on the ecology, species, feeding habit and population density. Agricultural damage is largely caused by fallow, red and roe deer with most reports of damage to pasture or cereal crops. Woodland in lowland UK are more likely to be damaged by fallow, red and roe deer. The cost of damage to agricultural crops and woodland was found to be negligible. In conservation habitats damage was largely seen in woodlands, in particular coppice managed woodlands. In heathlands, grassland and wetlands grazing damage by deer was seen to be beneficial by restricting scrub growth.

It will be possible to predict future damage by deer by examining the data on distribution and abundance of different deer species and the data on regional distribution of vulnerable crops and woodlands.

There is a perception that deer damage is increasing, however, there is little data to quantify the scale of impact on agricultural, forestry and conservation habitats. The 'true economic cost' of deer damage, therefore, requires further research and examination.

A sample of six small woodlands were used to assess the impact of nine roe deer/km2 on ground and shrub vegetation. 30 exclosures and 30 paired controls were set up with vegetation density measured at six height categories in late winter and mid-summer between 1996-1999. Vegetative cover was found to be reduced by deer browsing in winter and summer and significantly increased during the study period. Plant composition also changed during the study period. Plant structure and composition of small farm woodlands in arable ecosystems were found to be effected by roe deer populations.

The observed changes in vegetative structure and species composition from deer browsing could be beneficial to woodlands depending on the management objectives. However, if shrubby woodlands are the management objective then deer browsing can be damaging to the biodiversity of these woodlands and negatively impacting on the conservation value.

For similar projects in the future monitoring habitat impact and change in relation to deer browsing should use larger plot sizes with a central assessment area over a longer time period. This study terminated after four years of study due to the woodland beginning provide a support structure for rambling shrub species (e.g. bramble) biasing increased growth in these plots. Exclosures were also designed to allow hares to pass in, however, evidence of hare presence was low. Therefore the authors recommend an increase at the base of exclosures to 50mm to generate a more accurate picture.

To be completed

Community involvement with deer management in suburban areas has increased. This has resulted in both challenges and opportunities for collaboration between different stakeholder groups. The paper draws on stakeholder interviews with people involved with collaborative deer management in suburban communities in New York and Massachusetts. The interviews identified the factors that influenced stakeholder capacity and capacity-developing intervention for more effective collaboration.

Recommendations for increasing community capacity for collaborative deer management are: partnerships, credibility, funding, relationships, common purpose, knowledge and leadership. In order to achieve and facilitate capacity development the following 'intervention approaches' are suggested: stakeholder involvement, education, communication, assessment, agency flexibility and planning.

The authors recognise that deer management issues and the responsive collaborative management process can evolve. However, not all issues and collaborative management groups will evolve sequentially. This makes it difficult to define a set of collaborative 'rules' that would work in every context.

The paper questions the legal framework for game management, specifically wild deer, which currently focuses on hunting rights. Highlighting key legislation it identifies the influence of historical laws on contemporary conflicts. The authors argue there is a sense of 'inertia' in relation to sustainable deer management in legal and political terms as a result of current legislation.

The paper argues that there is a need for greater innovation if sustainable deer management is to be achieved including, 'state intervention'; voluntary collaboration; financial incentives and establishing a legal responsibility for management.

In Scotland direct intervention of the public sector has been hampered by a lack of resources and to avoid conflict with private estate owners. In England this is not practical without 'significant legislative change'. Collaboration (namely Deer Management Groups) can be restricted by lack of support or only superficial support by a small minority of land owners. In relation to financial incentives there is a need to understand the context of the different hunting system and culture to examine how effective and accepted the financial incentives would be. Finally there are obstacles to establishing a legal responsibility including the sensitivity of cull data, time and logistics, sensitivities to the dynamic environment of the deer.

This paper considers the results of a study of estates in North West Sutherland which examined land use changes during 1980-1990. Important land use changes are identified which represent a continuation and, in some cases, an acceleration of trends noted from the 1970-1980 period. Trends are, however, variable within and between estate types so that the physical capabilities of the holdings and land use policies generally are inappropriate as full explanations. More relevant is owner motivation. The dominant owner motivation, by typically elderly absentee owners, is private enjoyment. The estate contributes little to the owners’ overall income and wealth and any commercialised activities represent an attempt to minimise losses rather than maximise profits. There was a move to a more commercial orientation among sporting estates, suggesting a lower demand for and return from hind lets. The increased hind cull, therefore, represents increased management of an expanding deer population rather than commercial motives. This is most likely to be a response to the Red Deer Commission’s calls for increased culling rates.

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The booklet was designed for local residents and communities about the issues related to an over-abundant white tailed deer population, including deer-vehicle collisions, disease transmission and ecological habitat. It also provides potential management options including, non-lethal options (e.g. birth control, trap and relocated, fencing and deer resistant plants) and deer population reductions methods (e.g. sharpshooting, regulated hunting and controlled hunting). It also provides details on current deer reduction programmes in Connecticut as well as facts about deer and recommendations for future deer management.

In developing management programmes it is crucial to build community support and provide residents with facts about all management options. Where land is divided under different ownership it is important to get neighbours to work together. Deer should be targeted for removal but should include stags and does. Management programmes should be undertaken annually and accurate records kept of disease transmission, roadkills and deer-vehicle accidents to evaluate the progress of management. Provide refrigerated storage and a fund to cover the cost of donating venison.

It is important to know the context of the area, who owns the land, what laws or policies may restrict hunting methods as if these are unknown it may reduce the effectiveness of the management programme.

The incorporation of stakeholder knowledge with data from quantitative models can modify the predictions of wildlife distribution and abundance. The use of participatory GIS, allows stakeholders to assist in the refinement of landscape-scale deer management data. The collaboration of stakeholders can thus help contribute to incomplete scientific knowledge.

Stakeholders can have up-to-date knowledge of species which can be particularly helpful when data sources are not as up-to-date for modelling deer abundance and distribution.

There are no practicable techniques available for estimating deer densities at a regional level.

Optimal management prescriptions are developed for a bio-economic system comprising 14 state variables and 6 control variables: red deer management in the Scottish Highlands. Management on estates where deer are husbanded as a sporting resource, and on sites where deer density is reduced to promote the regeneration of native woodland are considered.The particular focus is on the consequences of deer emigration/immigration, between neighbouring sites pursuing conflicting management objectives. Results suggest that a strong stock effect on culling cost and a wide disparity in value between culled males and females underlie the high population densities and female-biased herd structures which prevail across the Highlands. Results also suggest that managing deer density to secure the regeneration of native woodland will incur considerable costs. Emigration/immigration of immature male deer between a neighbouring sporting estate and woodland regeneration site carries adverse cost implications for both parties.

Whilst deer management on sporting estates may respond to financial incentives, the strong inverse relationship between deer density and culling cost will prevent such mechanisms from delivering substantial reductions in deer density under current property rights.

The paper builds on previous research on the economic impacts of mammals on forestry by quantifying the financial costs and benefits of roe deer browsing damage in British forestry. The use of such information will be to assist foresters to minimise the costs of potential damage through deer management. The costs of browsing damage were calculated in relation to three variables 1) the change in timber products as a result of multiple stemming of trees, 2) increased period to establish and 3) rotation extension. The results suggested that the economic impact of multiple stemming was not as economically important as other reports have suggested and could be tolerated at higher levels (c. 55%). Greater negative economic impact is associated with the extra years needed for trees to reach establishment (including associated maintenance costs).

Identifying the 'true cost' of deer damage can improve the economic efficiency of deer management. 'True costs' could be built into a wider framework to help maintain more profitable timber production but also factored in the presence of wildlife.

The study examined tick abundance and seasonality of the tick species Ixodes ricinus in relation to the relative variables of changes in climate, host density and acaricide treated hosts using a population model. Results identified the role of higher temperatures increasing overall tick population which reduced the cumulative effect of daily mortality rates. The recent significant increase in deer populations across Europe is likely to have increased tick populations. However, where deer densities are high, further increases in population number could reduce the number of questing ticks due to the lack of food. Culling these populations could therefore cause an initial increase in questing ticks and so disease transmission potential. The addition of other host species (e.g. sheep) could reduce the number of questing ticks, in particular if they were treated with acaricide.

The primary objective of the 'Deer/Vehicle Collisions Project' was to build, for the first time, a UK database of road traffic collisions involving deer during the study period. The project was launched in England in January 2003 by the Deer Initiative with funding from the Highways Agency. Additional funding was made available by the Scottish Executive allowing the project to include full coverage of Scotland in June 2003. Data was collated (from various sources including, regional police forces, local authority road safety or accident investigation units, animal welfare organisations, Forestry Commission and public sightings), verified and evaluated with the aim that the database could then be examined to help asses the overall frequency of deer-vehicle collisions (DVCs) within the UK, explore any regional variation and identify current or potential future areas of high DVC occurrence. The project also investigated other influential factors in relation to DVCs including, season, road type and roadside habitat. Results from the database have helped to inform ecological impact assessments and mitigation measures for some major trunk roads in Scotland and England. The conclusions of the report highlight large numbers of DVCs across the UK. In particular, Scotland is highlighted as having a 'serious and continuing' problem of DVCs, in relation to animal welfare, human injury and economic costs of damage caused by the collisions.

The paper explores the multiple functions associated with hunting beyond the traditional purpose of supplying meat. The paper draws on a study that analysed hunting in 8 study areas across Europe and Africa. The results highlight the trade-offs between ecological, economic and social functions of hunting, e.g. biodiversity conservation, recreation and contribution to rural economies. The role of institutions within these trade-offs are examined to understand the challenges and conflicts that arise from hunting and arrangements that have been developed to address these challenges. The paper ends with a discussion on the wider implications of the findings in relation to policy and institutional design.

The paper identifies the conflicting agendas in relation to deer management for hunting and conservation groups. Wild deer are used as an example of an animal that is regarded as both a pest and valued resource. Conservation groups wish for deer populations to be kept at the lowest level possible whilst hunters desire for deer to be kept at higher rather than lower densities. Although these appear to be in direct opposition and potentially irreconcilable the paper highlights the ways in which these differing interests could be, to an extent, reconciled drawing on work undertaken in New Zealand.

The authors suggest a means to assist the management of deer through the division of the country into management units. These units would then be ranked in relation to their conservation value and the resources required to conserve these values from wild deer. The areas ranked as the highest conservation priority the Government could fund hunters to reduce deer densities. Those deemed of lowest conservation value/priority could be used as training ground for hunters who are less experienced and more experienced hunters used to manage deer in the higher priority areas.

The greatest barrier to the solution suggested is a general lack of awareness of the 'overall picture' of the agendas for conservationists and hunters. Individual cases are often argued over in a reactionary way rather than a more holistic approach.

Landscape models to describe and predict deer-vehicle collisions (DVCs) within the City of Edmonton, Alberta, were created. Models based on roadside characteristics revealed that DVCs occurred frequently where vegetation was both denser and more diverse and that DVCs were more likely to occur when the groomed width of roadside right-of-ways was smaller. No DVCs occurred where the width of the vegetation-free or manicured roadside buffer was greater than 40m. Landscape-based models showed that DVCs were more likely in more heterogeneous landscapes where road densities were lower and speed limits were higher, and where non-forested vegetation such as farmland was in closer proximity to larger tracts of forest.

These models can help wildlife and transportation managers to identify locations of high collision frequency for mitigation. Modifying certain landscape and roadside habitats can be an effective way to reduce deer-vehicle collisions.

The management of urban deer populations can prove challenging, in particular when using lethal controls e.g. culling. These can be perceived negatively by urban communities. The research used a questionnaire to assess management preferences of community members in per-urban Scotland. The results were analysed against three social categories, age, gender and familiarity with wildlife. The results for the survey show an overall preference to non-lethal management responses, e.g. fencing, changing human behaviour on roads, across all the social categories. Culling was supported by some respondents as a third preference management response. This paper is part of a wider research project, 'Management of roe deer in peri-urban Scotland'.

Preferred management responses should be utilised first. Culling should only be regarded as a 'subsidiary management response' in peri-urban areas.

The research was conducted using a case study area, Central Scotland Forest. Preferences may vary in different peri-urban and urban areas. A longitudinal study may highlight changes in preferences over time as tolerance levels change and community and wildlife populations change.

The Deer Initiative hosted a two day conference in Buxton, England entitled 'The Future for Deer'. This report contains the proceedings from the conference. Topics of papers are wide ranging including, woodland biodiversity, agricultural production, urban deer, wild deer road traffic accidents, economics and standards of deer management and issues in relation to venison quality assurance and Game meat regulations.

The research aimed to identify the most effective research method to examine public perceptions of deer management. It evaluated methods including, focus groups, interviews (face-to-face, in-depth and telephone) and surveys (postal and online, including promoted via social media). Focus groups and postal surveys were identified as as providing the best data quality and for establishing people's perception, awareness and understanding. Email surveys had the poorest quality and lowest response rate. Surveys promoted via social media were not successful. Quantitative and qualitative data needs to be collected to gain a more holistic understanding of the perceptions.

The potential of social media to obtain information and communicate with younger people could be a potential useful approach, however, this requires further examination as an approach. Training in the use of social media may be required. Visitor perceptions should also be included within research on wild deer perceptions as deer can be an important factor in visitor experience to Scotland.

The overall theme of the paper explores issues and narratives in relation to community landownership. A community stalking group in North Harris is identified (p.27) as an example of the changing relationship between the community and natural resources under community landownership tenure.

The stalking group comprises 26 certified trained members who actively manage the hind population. The stalking rights are leased back to private interest. This approach overcame the need to employ a deer manager which led to a change in attitudes by local people of stalking and a decline in poaching.

This review paper outlines the history and population status of red and sika deer in the British Isles. Red deer have been present in Britain since the last glaciation compared to Japanese sika which were introduced in small numbers in different locations in Britain and Ireland since 1860. There has been a recent increase in the population and range of red and sika deer posing diverse management challenges. The paper details the current management of these deer species and factors influencing how they are managed including, for commercial exploitation, forestry management, agricultural impacts and hybridisation between species.

In relation to hybridisation the authors recommend, 1) the avoidance of exotic deer introductions, 2) sika should be specifically managed (such as high rates of culling) as far as possible to try and avoid further habitat damage and kept away from red deer populations, 3) in areas where red and sika populations overlap there should be selective culling, in particular of pioneering sika stags and phenotypically hybrid deer. The latter is particularly difficult due to the subtlety of hybridisation, the authors suggest more information should be provided to improve awareness and effectiveness in identifying hybrid deer.

The multiple aspects related to hybridisation and swarm formation of red and sika hybrids are not yet completely understood. More research in this area is needed in order to help inform future deer management.

Red deer are becoming increasingly exposed to disturbance by human recreation activities. This study, based in the Scottish Highlands, examined the vigilance behaviour of red deer in sites that have traditionally high numbers of visitors (disturbed) and sites with relatively few visitors (less-disturbed). Studies were conducted during the main recreational season (spring and summer) on different habitat sites and in mating grounds during the hunting season (autumn and winter). Direct observations were undertaken using scan sampling at 3 minute intervals for 1 hour periods, the number of animals displaying vigilant behaviour in each group were recorded as well as the mode of behaviour. During the recreational season, the percentage of animals that were vigilant was higher in disturbed than less disturbed sites, in particular on sites with lower cover, e.g. grassland and heather moorland. In comparison in woodland sites (with greater cover) the percentage of vigilant deer was lower. The habitat type of the sites also influenced the mode of vigilant behaviour of the animals, whether they were stood or laying down. During hunting season the overall vigilance levels were higher than any of the sites during the recreational season, and vigilant animals were more likely to be moving. Recreation is likely to be perceived by deer as a less acute threat than hunting.

The study, based on four study sites in southern Scotland, examined the infection of ticks and deer. Ticks were sampled during 1996-99 on vegetation using cloth drags, on humans by removal from clothing and on roe deer by searching the legs of culled deer. The results provide information on the likelihood of greater infestation in relation to habitat, vegetation type and potential predictor variables. In relation to deer there was a negative correlation between densities of deer and ticks collected, however, the presence of deer remains a major indicator of exposure. Infected tick prevalence was 'fairly uniform' across all four sites studied. The paper discusses the likelihood of infection and intensity of infection in ticks.

The paper examines the influence of roe deer population numbers and distribution on the regeneration potential of older or uneconomic woods in forests in the south of Scotland. The different types of damage and failure of earlier methods are discussed. The discussions are based on two comparative studies on roe deer populations which identified deer habits and seasonal behaviour.

The importance of training for deer stalkers and the use of the right equipment to manage deer populations is stressed.

Deer can cause negative impacts to agriculture, commercial forestry, amenity trees or farm woodlands, and to conservation of habitats and species. Attributing accurate costs at a national scale is particularly difficult to do for agriculture and forestry impacts as costs tend to be very site specific. Deer can also be involved in the transfer of diseases, to humans or their livestock, and pose a more direct risk to public safety through their involvement in road traffic accidents. However, they are an important component of natural ecosystems and wider biodiversity.They have significant wider cultural value to the Scottish people and contribute to the tourist economy. They also provide a significant contribution to the economy in many rural areas, whether for private enjoyment by the landowners and their guests or through leased hunting. Estates are major employers in some rural areas.

The study examined the variation in sex and age-specific rates of mortality and emigration to density-dependent changes in the adult sex ratio. Results were based on long term observations and demographic experiments on the red deer population on the Isle of Rum. The observations were put into a model to help predict the response of local populations under different management regimes. It highlighted that if female numbers increased to higher than 60% of the ecological carrying capacity the sustainable annual harvest of male deer would fall. This would have knock on effects on the potential income from stalking of male deer through fee-paying hunters.

The authors suggest that income could be raised if female deer numbers are reduced in local deer populations which may also bring ecological benefits to the vegetation in these environments.

The study explored the potential of a field-based interactive photo-elicitation method to capture multiple stakeholder perceptions in relation to woodland and forests. The study is part of a wider interest in collaborative planning and management processes. Small groups of research participants were taken to 3 predominantly oak woodlands in the UK that represented different levels of deer browsing. Deer impact on the woodland (and in turn woodland management) can be contentious and a key challenge to collaborative management approaches. Participants were asked to record their experience in the woodlands, taking photographs and making notes. This were used as a focus to group discussion following the field visits. Seven key themes were identified in relation to preferences for woodland landscapes. The study challenges previous studies as there was 'substantial shared appreciation' for woodland landscapes across the different stakeholder groups.

The authors argue that the method 'advances the field of landscape preference assessment'. It can capture stakeholder preferences in an in-depth manner and can also be cost-effective.

The Glenfinnan estate removed their perimeter deer fence from a 20 year old commercial forestry plantation. Levels of tree damage were monitored on the plantation between 1995 and 2001. Deer damage was recorded as being minimal and did not affect the economic potential of the plantation. Localised damage was largely a result of the vulnerability of tree species (Norway spruce and Lodgepole pine were the most vulnerable) and for the pre-thicket stage with maximum local densities of 27 deer km2 recorded in the first two winters in areas which did not have close canopy. The low densities are interpreted as the increased percentage of dense thicket stage woodland with limited ground flora alongside culling of open range deer on the estate.

If low deer densities can be maintained the need for forest fences beyond the pre-thicket stage is likely to be unnecessary.

The study evaluated the acceptability of lethal and non-lethal deer management methods in urban areas. Urban deer management in particular highlights the social, cultural and political processes that are part of a wider context in which deer management takes place. Questionnaires were sent to 192 public and private wildlife management, conservation and agricultural agencies and organisations. The results were then compared to data from a broader survey of public attitudes towards wildlife damage management and policy.

Whilst it was recognised that some stakeholder groups (e.g. animal rights organisations) did not believe lethal methods were an acceptable form of deer management, some public stakeholders were willing to accept these methods if they have been determined by wildlife management agencies to be the most feasible. Alongside the direct management of deer the research also argues for greater education and increased public participation and understanding to enhance credibility of wildlife agencies.

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The paper examined the temporal distribution of wild ungulate road accidents based on months, hunting seasons, day of the week and time of the day. Based on 6,255 reported accidents, 62.8% were in relation to wild boar and 36.5% to roe deer. A temporal pattern of accidents was seen for each species, with roe deer related accidents peaking in April and May coinciding with the breeding season and July with the rut. Accidents were also more likely at weekends and daily patterns highlighted that accidents were more likely to occur around dusk and dawn. These patterns can be explained in part to the increased human use of the road at these times as well being the times of higher activity of ungulates.

Having a better understanding of wild ungulate related traffic accidents and their temporal pattern will help to develop more effective mitigation measures. It is not possible to change the behaviour of the wild ungulates, therefore measures will need to be centred on the drivers, e.g. seasonal warning signs, adapted signage (with warning lights) and public awareness campaigns.

This report focus on the impact of all deer management (for both sporting and other purposes) on the Scottish economy. It uses qualitative and quantitative methods and modelling. Results showed that the total spend retained in Scotland is £70.4 m (£62.8m for sport, £7.6m for management only). Direct employment is 966 FTE (840 FTE for sport, 126 FTE for management only). Indirect employment is 1554 FTE (1440 FTE for sporting, 114 for management only). Looking at management only (not sporting), 19% of deer on a given site are culled each year. An average of 0.9 FTE are required per shoot site. The typical (median) operational expenditure (including wages) per site was £27,430 per annum, with £26,184 staying in Scotland. The typical (median) capital expenditure per site is £2,240 per annum, with £948 staying in Scotland. The average (mean) income per site for the sale of deer carcasses, processed venison and other deer products is £6,372. In addition, an average (mean) of £4,537 was saved per site on the prevention of damage to crops, horticulture woodlands and the natural environment as a result of deer management.

This is a review of the economic implications of deer damage in forests (mostly Sitka spruce). Bark stripping and fraying, as well as browsing, were studied. Estimates of economic losses were simulated. Bark stripping accounted for 0.06-2.02% losses. The delay in growth due to bark stripping was estimated to create loss revenue of 3.4%. It was harder to estimate economic losses due to leader browsing. The study concluded that culling deer (where possible) was more cost-effective than fencing (offset by venison value).

It is more cost-effective to cull animals than fencing.

Estimation of economic losses due to browsing are highly speculative, as there is a lack of data directly relating growth loss, survival and poor stem form to timber yield loss.

The study examined the extent to which deer management methods (in particular, culling and fencing) can be useful for controlling ticks and so in turn the implications for tick-borne pathogens. Using the hypothesis that tick abundance is reduced by 1) deer culling and 2) deer exclusion through fencing, this was tested at different spatial scales and in different habitats. The results are outlined with the primary finding being that areas with fewer deer had fewer ticks. Fenced exclosures had smaller tick numbers in both large-scale forest and small-scale moorland plots. The paper discusses the findings in relation to other hosts, pathogen prevalence and disease risk. The study finds that traditional management methods can help to reduce a generalist parasite which has implications for disease risk mitigation.

This study showed that people’s preferences regarding woodland understorey vegetation were generally unstable. Over 50% of participants adjusted preferences upon new information. Extreme preferences following information provision became increasingly rare. People’s preferences became more robust with their age and familiarity with woodlands. There was a widespread desire for a spatially diverse woodland management. Susceptibility of landscape preferences to information provision should be explicitly recognised by landscape planners and researchers, notably where visualisation techniques are being used to inform decision making.

Effective stakeholder collaboration at a community level in wildlife management remains a challenge. This research proposes the use of the ‘Islip Deer Initiative’ (IDI) as one approach to help design a stakeholder involvement strategy. The design of the IDI is based on a four-step procedure. This involved, 1) understanding the local context, 2) defining the objectives for stakeholder involvement, 3) selecting an overarching stakeholder involvement approach, and 4) designing context-specific stakeholder involvement strategies. The context for this research was the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation to work as a partnership with three other parties in order to manage white-tailed deer cooperatively.

Residents in the areas of Islip occupied by deer were surveyed to obtain information to help design specific stakeholder involvement strategies. There was a strong interest by many of the residents to input into local deer management decisions. Stakeholder involvement within a deer management decision process should, utilise scientific information, show equality of all stakeholders and views, good communication is key, and be time and cost-effective.

Using findings from a questionnaire survey and in-depth interviews, the paper presents a contemporary overview of the management and role o f sporting estates as viewed by the owners themselves. Owning an estate is mostly seen as a lifestyle choice, the management centres on non-financial benefits. Owners are sympathetic to nature conservation but their activities have tenuous links to mainstream interests of conservation organisations. Public access is seen as conflictual but owners are mostly tolerant of most activities. Their views adhere rigidly to traditional aims and values, innovations are frowned upon and there is little enthusiasm for change.

To be completed

To be completed

Deer–vehicle collisions (DVCs) are a constant problem in North America that cost millions of dollars of damage and loss of human life. This study investigated the spatial relationship of DVCs for a county in western Indiana using nearest neighbor analysis, chi-square test of independence, and a landscape metric: the percentage of like adjacencies. The study was able to show that DVCs are not randomly located, and that habitat type and structure may play an important role in the location of DVCs.

This report presents the main findings of the 2013/14 PACEC research into the economic, environmental and social contribution of shooting sports to the UK between August 2012 and July 2013. It updates and expands upon the PACEC study carried out in 2006. The research was concentrated around a large scale email survey of shooting sports participants, and the people occupying key roles in organisations which provide shooting sports opportunities. It also features a case studies with shooting providers, suppliers, and organisations such as providers of hospitality who may benefit from local provision of shooting, as well as discussions with shooting stakeholders.

The shooting sports providers and their suppliers value to the UK economy was £2 billion. Shooting providers influence the management of 14 million ha. Specific habitat and wildlife management is carried out on 1.8 million ha of land in the UK. 46% of this work is general management of heather moorland, 27% is coppicing/ thinning woodland. Shooting providers spend c.£230 million per year on habitat and wildlife management practices. 6% of the providers provided apprenticeships, and 28% provided other formal or informal on-the-job training. 22% have links with training organisations. 16% have links with local educational establishments, or provide school visits.

The study examined the potential risk of tick bites and Lyme disease in a forested area in England that had public access, across a two year period. Recorded tick levels were high with over 1000 people reporting tick removal in a local clinic. Most attached ticks (82%) were nymphs with distinct differences in areas of the body that ticks attached too between adults and children. Areas where tick numbers were high were used by deer. The average density of nymphs collected from vegetation was 14.1 per 10m2 and the infection rates ranged from 5.2-17%. Other detected bacteria also indicate that bids may also act as reservoir hosts in the area. Despite the high numbers of ticks within the area there were no cases of Lyme disease reported through the clinic suggesting that the site poses a low risk to infection to the general public.

The Scottish Government has stated its intention to increase woodland cover from 18% towards 25% of land area by 2050. This will rely heavily on publicly funded grant schemes to encourage woodland creation on private land. At present required rates of woodland expansion are un-met. The benefits of new woodland are not guaranteed and depend on woodland type, spatial characteristics and cultural context. This paper reviews the rationale behind the current desire for expansion in Scotland and the barriers to its realisation. It concludes by identifying areas for further research, emphasising benefit distribution, changing perceptions, and greater outcome evaluation.